UNDERSTANDING ARTISAN BREAD

WHAT IS ARTISAN BREAD?
Artisan bread has many definitions. Most of the possible definitions include
expressions like homemade, handmade, made in small quantities, lacking
in preservatives, and using traditional techniques. But for every definition, it
is possible to find exceptions. Clearly, those terms don’t completely define
what we understand to be artisan breads or separate them from conventional
breads. After all, every bread formula in this book can be made by hand in
small quantities, yet many of them would not be considered artisan. At the
same time, there are commercial bakeries that use machines to transform
thousands of pounds of flour a day into high-quality breads that nearly anyone
would call artisan, or that at least have all the eating qualities of artisan breads.
Furthermore, now that supermarket chains are selling mass-produced loaves
with artisan on the label, the word is harder than ever to define, if not
impossible.
The dictionary defines an artisan as a skilled manual worker, a
craftsperson. An artisan bread, then, is one made by hand by a skilled baker.
This is a good start, but it is not very precise. Another definition sometimes
given is that artisan breads are made using traditional methods. This is also
important, but we still have to determine what is meant by traditional
methods.We may not be able to come up with a definition of artisan bread that
satisfies everyone, but we can list the characteristics that, according to many
bakers, should be present.
Handmade This is the characteristic most closely related to the
dictionary definition of artisan. Does this mean that machinery cannot be
used at all? A home baker can make bread from start to finish without
machinery,but clearly it would be difficult for a bakery to produce enough
bread to be commercially viable without even using a mixer.Some form of
machinery is used in virtually every baking operation. Nevertheless, hand
work plays an important role in artisan production, and the manual skill
and judgment of the artisan baker are essential. By necessity, then, artisan
bread production is usually small-scale, not high-volume. Making artisan
bread is not an automatic or purely mechanical process.
Use of pre-ferments and sourdough starters A pre-ferment is a
fermented dough or batter that is used to provide leavening for a larger
batch of dough. A sourdough starter is similar to a yeast preferment,
except it uses wild yeast instead of commercial yeast. No chemical additives or preservatives The classic artisan bread is a
crisp-crusted bread that contains nothing but flour,water, and salt, and it is
leavened either by wild yeast (sourdough) or commercial yeast. Other
ingredients may be added for some specialty breads, including dough
ingredients such as milk,eggs,and butter,and add-ins such as herbs,spices,
nuts, dried fruit, and olives. But all ingredients should be recognizable by
the consumer as familiar food items.
Traditional production methods. Bread has been made for centuries
without the use of any machinery except, of course, ovens, and until
recently those ovens were wood-fired. Today’s artisan bakers try to
duplicate as much as possible these traditional methods. As already noted,
at least part of the production should be by hand, even if mixers are used
to make the dough. Bakers also seek out flours similar to those used for
old-fashioned European breads, most notably flours with slightly lower
protein content and higher ash . Also, because the fermentation
process is so important for flavor, doughs are usually fermented for longer
times at lower temperatures, often without the use of proof boxes.Hearth
ovens or deck ovens are invariably used, and some bakeries have even
installed wood-fired hearth ovens for their breads.
FLOUR
As any chef knows, choosing high-quality ingredients is an important part of
cooking the finest dishes. Unlike the cook in the kitchen, however, the bread
baker has far fewer ingredients to worry about. Flour, of course, is the baker’s
main ingredient, so the quality of flour in the bakeshop affects nearly all the
baker’s products, and especially bread.
One of the great inspirations for bread bakers today is the late Lionel
Poilâne, whose famous breads were shipped around the world. Poilâne was
particular about his selection of flours, insisting on using only organically
grown wheat that conformed to his exacting specifications.Today’s artisan
bakers, in North America as well as Europe, are following his lead and
seeking out the best organic flours, often made from wheat grown in small
quantities.
As we have said, artisan bread bakers in North America often try to
replicate the traditional breads of France and other European countries, so
they look for flour that is similar to European flours.This means, first of all,
flour with a protein content of around 11.5% rather than the 12.5% common
to North American bread flours.
Keep in mind that lower protein content means a lower absorption ratio. This means that if you are substituting a lower-protein flour in a
formula in which you have always used a higher-protein patent flour,you must
use less liquid in order to get the same dough consistency. Whenever you
change flours, it is best to test a small batch to see how the new flour
performs.
Second, while North American straight flours are about 72% extraction, artisan breads are often made with higher-extraction flour,
anywhere from 77 to 90%.This means the flour is darker and has a higher ash
content, resulting in fuller flavor. In addition, the higher mineral content is
beneficial to the long, slow fermentations favored for artisan breads. If it is not
possible to find such flours, they can be approximated in two ways.The easier
way is to mix a little whole wheat flour with the white flour. A more laborious
way, but one that gives a closer approximation to a high-extraction flour, is to
sift whole wheat flour through a fine sieve to remove the coarse flakes of
bran.You can save the bran for another use.

PRE-FERMENTS AND
SOURDOUGH STARTERS
Pre-ferments give the fermentation a strong
head start, and they contribute to flavor by extending the fermentation period.
In addition, the use of pre-ferments allows the baker to reduce or eliminate the
amount of commercial yeast used. Third, short-fermentation straight doughs
may be difficult to handle, requiring the use of dough conditioners and other
additives. Pre-ferments, on the other hand, naturally improve the dough
texture, making it easier to work without resorting to additives.
There are two basic types of pre-ferments: yeast pre-ferments, sometimes
called yeast starters, and sourdough pre-ferments, usually called sourdough
starters or natural starters.
Sourdough starters are similar to yeast pre-ferments except that they are
made with wild yeasts. As a result, they are handled somewhat differently.
These starters are “sour”because of the acidity created in the dough during the
long fermentation.This acidity affects not only the flavor of the bread but also
the texture.The starches and proteins are modified by the acids, resulting in a
moister crumb and better keeping qualities.
YEAST PRE-FERMENTS
Many traditional terms are used for various types of pre-ferments.
Unfortunately, the terminology is not used consistently. Some of the terms are
introduced here,but you may find that some bakers use them in different ways.
As artisan breads become more common, these terms will probably become
more standardized. Even the word sponge is used in different ways. As used by
this book and by many bakers, a sponge is any yeast pre-ferment. Other bakers
use the word sponge only for a thin, batterlike pre-ferment.
Unlike sourdoughs,which can last indefinitely,yeast starters have a limited
life and are best made fresh for each new batch of dough.Overfermented yeast
pre-ferments should be discarded because a dough made from them will not
handle well, and the bread will have undesirable flavors.
The most important types of pre-ferments are the following:
Poolish
This type of starter is said to have originated in Poland, and the word
poolish comes from “Polish.”A poolish (or poolisch) is a thin yeast starter
made with equal parts flour and water (by weight),plus commercial yeast.
In other words, a formula for poolish is 100% flour, 100% water, and
varying percentages of yeast, depending on the desired speed of
fermentation.
To contribute maximum flavor, a poolish is made with only a small
quantity of yeast and given a long fermentation at room temperature. The
poolish bubbles up and increases in volume, and when it is at its peak, it
starts to fall back slightly and the top surface appears wrinkled. A poolish
given a slow fermentation may hold its peak quality for several hours.After
this period, the acidity will increase and the quality will deteriorate.
If a shorter fermentation is needed, use more yeast. In this case,
however, the starter will be at its peak of quality for a shorter time before
it starts to deteriorate. See the table above for yeast quantities and fermentation
times.
Biga
Biga is the Italian term for pre-ferment. Although the word can, in theory,
refer to a starter of any consistency, it is usually used for stiff pre-ferments.
Because stiffer doughs ferment more slowly than wet ones, a biga is
generally made with more yeast. Use about 2 times the quantity of yeast as
in a poolish to get the same fermentation time.
A typical biga contains 100% flour, 50 to 60% water, and about 1 to
1.5% fresh yeast.
Levain-levure
This is the general French term for yeast pre-ferment. It is usually stiff like
a biga, but the term is sometimes used for thin pre-ferments like the
poolish as well. The word levure means “yeast.” Do not confuse levainlevure
with the word levain alone. Levain means sourdough starter, and
pain au levain means sourdough bread.
Scrap dough
Scrap dough is simply a piece of fermented bread dough saved from a
previous batch. It is sometimes known as pâte fermentée (pot fer mawn
tay), meaning “fermented dough.” Saving a piece of fermented dough,
preferably in the retarder so it doesn’t overferment, is an easy and
common way to get the benefits of using a pre-ferment without having to
make one separately. Of course, it is also possible to make a batch of bread
dough just to use as a pre-ferment.
Because scrap dough is actually bread dough, it differs from other
ferments in that it contains salt as well as flour, water, and yeast.The salt
slows the fermentation.To balance the salt, a scrap dough contains more
yeast than the other types of pre-ferments we have discussed.
When pure pre-ferments like the poolish and biga are used in bread, they
are usually the only source of leavening. On the other hand, scrap dough is
usually used in smaller quantities—that is, as a smaller proportion of the
finished bread dough—and may not be strong enough to ferment the bread on
its own.Yeast may be added in addition to the scrap dough when the final
Quantity of fresh
yeast (percent
of flour used
in poolish)
3.5% 1.4% 2 hours
2% 0.8% 4 hours
1% 0.4% 8 hours
0.5% 0.2% 12–16 hours
Yeast Quantities and Approximate
Poolish Fermentation Times
Quantity of dry
yeast (percent
of flour used in
poolish)
Approximate
fermentation time at
room temperature
(65°–68°F or 18°–20°F)
bread dough is mixed. In other words, such a bread dough is a straight dough
to which scrap dough is added. This method, in which both a preferment
and a fresh addition of yeast are used to provide leavening, is
sometimes called mixed fermentation.
SOURDOUGH STARTERS
For purposes of this discussion,we define a sourdough as a dough leavened by
a sourdough starter. A sourdough starter is a dough or batter that contains
wild yeasts and bacteria,that has a noticeable acidity as a result of fermentation
by these organisms, and that is used to leaven other doughs.
Sourdough starter is also called a natural sour or natural starter. Before
commercially prepared yeast was available, bread was started by mixing flour
and water and letting this mixture stand until wild yeasts began to ferment it.
This starter was then used to leaven bread. A portion of the starter was saved,
mixed with more flour and water, and set aside to leaven the next day’s bread.
This process is still used today.
There are two important points to notice in these definitions: the
presence of wild yeasts, not commercial yeasts, and the importance of bacteria.
Wild Yeasts
The wild yeasts in sourdough starters are not the same organisms as
commercial yeasts.Consequently, they act somewhat differently. Also, different
wild yeasts are found in different regions and environments. For example, the
wild yeast that gives San Francisco sourdough its unique flavor is not the same
as wild yeasts found in other parts of the world. If a starter is brought from one
region to another, the sour may gradually change character because the yeasts
in the new location apparently take over.
Wild yeasts can tolerate more acidity than commercial yeasts. If a dough
made with commercial yeast becomes too sour or acidic, the yeast is likely to
die, and the resulting bread will have an off taste.Wild yeasts used in starters
can tolerate and grow in higher levels of acidity.
Although you can approximate sourdough breads using yeast preferments,
the complex flavor and moist texture or crumb of a true sourdough
can be made only with a true natural starter containing wild yeasts.
Bacterial Fermentation
The second important point is that sourdough starters contain bacteria as well
as yeast. The most important of these bacteria belong to a group called
Lactobacilli (singular form: Lactobacillus). Like the yeast, these bacteria
ferment some of the sugars in the dough and create carbon dioxide gas. In
addition, they create acids.These acids give sourdough its sourness. As in the
case of wild yeasts, the exact strains of bacteria present vary from starter to
starter, so each starter has unique characteristics.
Two kinds of acids are created by the bacteria: lactic acid and acetic acid.
Lactic acid is a weak or mild acid. Acetic acid, which is the acid in vinegar, is a
strong acid. Getting a good balance of these two acids is an important goal of
the baker. The balance of these two acids gives the bread its characteristic
sourdough flavor.Too much acetic acid in the dough makes the bread taste
harsh and vinegary. Lactic acid is necessary to balance the flavor, but if the
dough contains only lactic acid and little or no acetic acid, the bread has little
sourdough flavor.
The ways in which the baker maintains the starter and controls the
fermentation process affect the formation of these two acids.
Starting and Maintaining Natural Starters
As we have said, the microorganisms (yeasts and bacteria) that create
sourdough starters differ from place to place. In addition, different bakers look
for different results in their sourdough breads. Thus, the procedures for
creating, maintaining, and using natural starters vary considerably.We begin
this section with a general explanation of the important factors that should be
considered.We then present a general procedure for making a natural starter.
Please keep in mind that, until your starter is well established and strong and
you have baked breads with consistent quality with this starter, your
procedures will be somewhat experimental.
Source of Microorganisms
As you have read, if a flour-and-water dough or batter is left to stand long
enough, sooner or later it is likely to start fermenting, either from yeasts and
bacteria in the air and environment or from yeasts and bacteria that were
already present in the flour. Unfortunately, however, just letting a dough stand
and hoping for the best is not the ideal way to make a batch of bread.To create
a starter, the baker usually looks for a more reliable source of fermentation.
Wild yeasts are naturally present on the surface of fruits and on the surface
of whole grains, and these are the most used sources for creating natural sours.
Mixing whole-grain rye flour into a batter or dough with water and letting it
stand until it ferments is one of the best and most reliable ways of creating a
starter.This initial fermentation usually takes at least two or three days.Rye is a
good environment for wild yeasts, and starters begun with rye are more likely
to be successful than starters begun with wheat flour only. Whole-grain rye
generally contains more of these organisms, but if it is not available, use the
darkest rye you can find. Light rye is made from the interior of the grain and
contains fewer of these organisms.
Another popular way to create a sour is to mix a batter or loose dough
with regular bread flour (wheat) and bury pieces of fruit (grapes are often
used) or vegetable in it until it begins to ferment.Then remove the fruit. Some
bakers feel this method is not as good as using rye because grain is the natural
environment for the yeasts on rye, whereas the yeasts on fruit are not as
adapted for growing in grain or flour.
Formulas for both types of starter are included in the next chapter. Of
course, results will vary depending on your location.
Refreshing the Starter
After the initial fermentation has begun,the starter must be refreshed regularly
so the yeasts and bacteria are nourished and will multiply until they are strong
enough to ferment a bread dough. Depending on the environment and other
factors, this can take several weeks.The yeasts and bacteria must regularly be
supplied with fresh food, in the form of wheat flour, so they can grow.The
basic procedure is to combine a portion of the fermenting starter with
additional flour and water in the correct ratio (see next section) and again
letting the mixture ferment.
You can imagine that if you continually add more flour and water to a
starter, soon you will have more starter than you can use. For this reason, part
of the starter is discarded each time it is refreshed.
Because every starter is different, it is impossible to predict how much
time is needed between refreshments. Generally, it may take two days or mor
The following is only a general procedure and is subject to many variations, as
described in the above text.
1. Combine the ingredients for the first stage as directed in the formula. Most starters fall
into two groups.
• Mix together whole rye flour and water (a).
• Or mix together bread flour and water. Add the selected fresh fruit or vegetable.
2. Cover the starter and let stand at room temperature until it begins to ferment. Continue
to let ferment until it bubbles up, increases in volume, and then falls back (b). This will
probably take two or three days.
3. Refresh the starter. Mix together bread flour, water, and all or some of the starter from
step 1. Use the quantities or ratios in your formula, or use the following guidelines:
• A typical stiff starter, or levain, may use the following ratio:
Flour 100%
Water 50–60%
Fermented starter 67%
• A typical thin starter, or barm, may use the following ratio:
Flour 100%
Water 100%
Fermented starter 200%
4. Cover and let stand at room temperature until well fermented. It should be sticky and
full of bubbles, and it should have increased in volume at least 50% (c). This may take
about two days, depending on the room temperature.
5. Repeat the refreshment as in step 3.
6. Continue to ferment and refresh as in steps 4 and 5. As the starter becomes stronger and
more active, the fermentation will eventually take only one day or less. Once the starter
has reached this level of activity, it is ready to use (d). Total time varies greatly, but will
average about two weeks.
7. After the starter is fully developed, it can be refrigerated to slow its activity and
increase the time between refreshments. Do not refrigerate a starter unless it has been
refreshed recently, or else the yeast may use up its food. Bring a refrigerated starter to
room temperature before using it to make bread.
8. The developed starter may be used as is in formulas, or it may be used as a storage
starter. This means it is a source of leavening that the baker keeps and maintains in
storage. To use this storage starter, the baker removes a quantity of it as needed and
refreshes this portion of it with the amounts of flour and water specified in an individual
bread formula. This starter is then called an intermediate starter. For best results,
always use either a refreshed starter or an intermediate starter in a bread formula. A
storage starter taken from the refrigerator may not be active enough to
provide the best fermentation.
General Procedure for Making a Sourdough Starter
a.
b.
c.
d.
Procedure
at the beginning of the process, but as the yeasts and bacteria multiply, the
starter gets stronger and faster-acting.A developed starter is usually refreshed
every day or even more often if the temperature is warm.
Flour-Water Ratio in the Starter
Some sourdough starters are stiff doughs, similar to the type of pre-ferment
called a biga. A stiff starter is sometimes referred to by its French name,
levain. Others are looser batters, with the same consistency as a poolish. Thin starters are sometimes called barms. The two types are handled
somewhat differently and have slightly different results.
A thick, doughlike starter is more stable and does not need to be refreshed
as often. It can be refrigerated without being refreshed for several days or even
a week. Stiff starters favor the production of both lactic acid and acetic acid.
Furthermore, the starter will produce more acetic acid under refrigeration
than at room temperature. Often a baker will retard a stiff starter with the goal
of increasing the ratio of acetic to lactic acid.
A thin starter is less stable and must be refreshed more often. It ferments
more quickly than a stiff starter and can become strongly acidic in a short time,
so it must be monitored carefully.Thin starters favor the production primarily
of lactic acid.
The type of starter you choose to make depends on the flavor profile
(balance of acids) you would like and on your production schedule.
Professional bakeshops can usually manage the demanding feeding schedule
of a thin starter. The fact that wet starters ferment more quickly may make
them more adaptable to a bakeshop’s schedule.Casual or amateur bakers often
start with a thin starter because it is easier to mix, but they may find that a stiff
starter is easier to maintain in the long run.
AUTOLYSE
Artisan bakers usually take an extra step during the mixing of the final dough.
This step is called autolyse (pronounced auto-lees).To mix a bread dough in
this fashion, first combine just the flour and water and mix at low speed just
until all the flour is moistened and a dough is formed. Turn off the mixer and
let stand for approximately 30 minutes.
During the autolyse, the flour hydrates fully, meaning the water is
completely absorbed by the flour’s proteins and starches. Also, the enzymes in
the dough begin acting on the proteins before they are too stretched by
mixing.This improves the gluten structure in the bread, making the finished
dough easier to handle and to mold. It also improves the texture of the baked
bread. Because of the improved gluten structure, mixing time is reduced,
meaning less air is mixed into the dough, improving the dough’s color and
flavor. This is because the oxygen in the air has a bleaching effect.
Notice that only the flour and water are included in the autolyse.The yeast
or starter, the salt, and other ingredients are not added until after this rest
period. If the yeast or starter were added to the dough before the autolyse, the
yeast action would increase the acidity of the dough, and this acidity would
inhibit the enzymes from acting. If the salt were added, it would make the
gluten tougher and less stretchable.
After the autolyse period is over, add the remaining ingredients and finish
mixing the dough.

FERMENTATION
After the finished dough is made, the next step in the production of yeast
breads is fermentation.The basics of this stage of production are explained in
chapter 4. Additional information is useful for the baker who is making artisan
breads.
One of the advantages of using pre-ferments is the improvement in flavor
and texture caused by the extended fermentation time.This holds true for the
fermentation of the finished bread dough as well.Yeast will ferment at any
temperature between 33° and 105°F (1° to 40°C). If the temperature is too
low,however, fermentation will be very slow and acidity will be produced.On
the other hand, a high temperature promotes excessively rapid fermentation
and the development of off flavors. As you recall, most production breads are
fermented in proof boxes at a temperature of about 80°F (27°C).
A lower temperature is preferable for artisan breads. Before the
development of proof boxes, doughs were simply fermented at room
temperature. Attempting to duplicate these conditions, artisan bakers may use
fermentation temperatures in the range of 72° to 75°F (22° to 24°C). At these
slightly cooler temperatures, doughs made with a yeast pre-ferment may take
two to three hours to ferment until double in bulk.
Sourdoughs ferment more slowly. A sourdough may take eight hours to
ferment at these cooler temperatures. Some bakers make sourdoughs at the
end of the workday and allow them to ferment overnight. The following
morning, they then make up, proof, and bake the loaves.
It is possible to ferment any of these doughs—yeast pre-ferment doughs
and sourdoughs—at a still lower temperature of about 68°F (20°C). Keep in
mind, however, that the fermentation period will be longer. More acidity will
develop because the acid-forming bacteria will be more active than the yeast.
This increased acidity may or may not be desirable, depending on the product.
You may want to experiment with the results of various fermentation
temperatures and times.
BAKING
The types of artisan breads described in this chapter are usually baked as
hearth breads.That is, they are baked directly on the deck or floor of deck or
hearth ovens. If you must bake them in rack ovens, it is best to use perforated
pans rather than solid pans, because the perforated pans allow for better heat
circulation and more even browning of the crust.
Underbaking is a common fault. Most lean hearth breads are best baked in
a hot oven preheated to 425° to 450°F (218° to 232°C) until the crust takes on
a rich, deep brown color. Use the lower end of this range for large loaves and
the hotter temperatures for small products. Small products need a higher
temperature so the crust browns sufficiently in the shorter baking time.A wellbrowned
crust has a richer flavor because of the well-caramelized starches and
the browned proteins. Pale golden crusts have a blander flavor. In addition,
taking care to bake the bread fully ensures a crisp crust that is less likely to be
softened by excessive moisture from the interior of the bread.
Steam should be used for at least the first 15 minutes of baking. Injecting
moisture into the oven delays the formation of the crust so the bread can
expand fully.Thus the crust will be thin and crisp rather than thick and hard.
The moisture also affects the starches on the surface of the bread, aiding in
creating a more attractively browned crust.

BREAD FAULTS AND THEIR CAUSES

Because of the complexity of bread production,many things can go wrong.To
remedy common bread faults, check the following troubleshooting guide for
possible causes and correct your procedures.

Fault Causes
Shape
Poor volume Too much salt
Too little yeast
Too little liquid
Weak flour
Under- or overmixing
Oven too hot
Too much Too little salt
volume Too much yeast
Too much dough scaled
Overproofed
Poor shape Too much liquid
Flour too weak
Improper molding or makeup
Improper fermentation or
proofing
Too much oven steam
Split or burst Overmixing
crust Underfermented dough
Improper molding—seam not on
bottom
Uneven heat in oven
Oven too hot
Insufficient steam
Flavor
Flat taste Too little salt
Poor flavor Inferior, spoiled, or rancid
ingredients
Poor bakeshop sanitation
Under- or overfermented
Texture and crumb
Too dense or Too much salt
close-grained Too little liquid
Too little yeast
Underfermented
Underproofed
Too coarse or Too much yeast
open Too much liquid
Incorrect mixing time
Improper fermentation
Overproofed
Pan too large
Streaked Improper mixing procedure
crumb Poor molding or makeup techniques
Too much flour used for dusting
Poor texture or Flour too weak
crumbly Too little salt
Fermentation time too long or too short
Overproofed
Baking temperature too low
Gray crumb Fermentation time or temperature too high
Crust
Too dark Too much sugar or milk
Underfermented dough
Oven temperature too high
Baking time too long
Insufficient steam at beginning of baking
Too pale Too little sugar or milk
Overfermented dough
Overproofed
Oven temperature too low
Baking time too short
Too much steam in oven
Too thick Too little sugar or fat
Improper fermentation
Baked too long or at wrong temperature
Too little steam
Blisters on Too much liquid
crust Improper fermentation
Improper shaping of loaf