PANS, CONTAINERS,
AND MOLDS
Many of the pots and pans found in the hot kitchen are also used in the bakeshop.For example,saucepans are used to boil syrups and to cook creams and fillings. This section, however, concentrates on specialty containers and molds for the bakery. The following is a representative sample of the more important of these, in alphabetical order. Molds are of two types: those for baking dough or batter items, and those for giving shape to refrigerated items
such as mousses and bombes. Other containers, such as mixing bowls, are included in the list.
1. Baba mold.
A small thimble-shaped mold for making babas
2. Banneton.
A bentwood basket, available in various shapes, for holding and giving shape to
certain hearth bread doughs as they proof.
3. Barquette.
A small boat-shaped mold for petits fours and small tartlets.
4. Bombe mold.
A dome-shaped mold for frozen desserts
5. Brioche mold.
A flared pan with fluted sides for making brioche
6. Cake pans.
While most cake pans are round,other shapes,such as hearts, are available for specialty cakes. Cake pans come in many sizes.
7. Cake ring.
See Charlotte ring.
8. Charlotte mold.
The classic charlotte mold is round, tapered, and flat-bottomed, with two handles near the top rim. Except for the Apple Charlotte ,which is baked in this mold, classic charlottes are made with a Bavarian cream filling and are refrigerated until set, not baked.
9. Charlotte ring.
Also called cake rings, these are stainless-steel rings in various diameters and heights, most often used for making molded desserts and for shaping and holding desserts made up of layers of cake, pastry, and fillings. The rings are removed after the fillings have set and before serving or display.
10. Chocolate molds.
Used for all sorts of chocolate work, from large display pieces to bite-size truffles.
11. Cornstick pan.
Special baking pan with indentations shaped like small ears of corn. Used for baking cornbread items.
12. Flexipan.
This is the brand name for a line of nonstick baking pans made of a flexible silicone material. Flexipans are available in dozens of shapes and sizes to make a wide range of products, from muffins to petits fours.
13. Hotel pan.
A rectangular pan,usually made of stainless steel.Designed to hold foods in service counters. Also used for baking and steaming, and often used for baked items such as bread pudding.The standard size is 10 , 20 in. (325 ,530 mm).Fractions of this size (1⁄2,1⁄3,and so on) are also available.Standard depth is 21⁄2 in.(65 mm),but deeper pans are also available.
14. Loaf pan.
A rectangular pan, usually with slightly flared sides, used for baking loaf breads. Loaf pans can also be used for molding refrigerated and frozen desserts.
Pullman pan
the Pullman pan, which has straight, not flared sides, and a removable lid, for
baking Pullman loaves of bread
15. Madeleine pan.
A special baking pan with shell-shaped indentations, used for baking madeleines
16. Mixing bowls.
The most useful mixing bowls are made of stainless steel and have round bottoms.They are used for general mixing and whipping.The round construction enables the whip to reach all areas for thorough mixing or whipping.
17. Muffin pan.
Metal baking pan with cup-shaped indentations for baking muffins.The available pans make muffins of several sizes.
18. Petit four molds.
Tiny metal molds in a variety of shapes, used for baking an assortment of little tartlets, financiers and other petits fours.
19. Savarin mold.
Small ring-shaped or doughnut-shaped metal molds for baking savarins
20. Sheet pan.
A shallow, rectangular pan (1 in./25 mm deep) for baking sheet cakes, cookies,rolls,and other baked goods.A full sheet pan measures 18 and 26 in. (46 and 66 cm). Half-sheet pans are 13 and 18 in. (33 and 46 cm). Perforated sheet pans are the same size, but the bottom is full of tiny holes.These allow even baking and browning of breads and rolls because the holes allow the oven’s hot air to circulate freely around the items as they bake.
21. Springform pan.
A cake pan with a removable bottom. Used primarily for baking cheesecake and other items that are too delicate to be easily removed from standard cake pans.
22. Tart pan.
A shallow (1 in./2.5 cm deep) metal pan, usually with fluted sides, used for baking tarts. Standard pans are round, but square and rectangular pans are also available.They may be made in one piece or with a removable bottom to make it easier to remove the baked tart from the pan. Tart pans make multi-serving pastries, but smaller tartlet pans make single-portion tartlets. Like tart pans, these come in a variety of sizes.The smallest of them usually are in one piece, not with removable bottoms.
23. Tube pan.
A deep cake pan with a tube in the center. The tube promotes even baking of angel food cakes
and similar items.
HAND TOOLS
1. Blow torch.
A tool used for caramelizing and controlled browning of various pastry items and for caramelizing the sugar topping of crème brûlée. Butane or propane is used as fuel, depending on the model.
2. Bowl knife.
Also called a straight spatula or palette knife, this tool has a long, flexible blade with a rounded end. Used mostly for spreading icing on cakes and for mixing and bowl scraping. A variant with an angled blade is called an offset spatula.The bent blade allows spreading and smoothing batters and fillings inside pans.
3. Brushes.
Pastry brushes are used to brush items with egg wash, glaze, and so on. Larger bench brushes are used to brush flour from tabletops and from the surface of dough. Oven brushes are used to clean excess flour from deck ovens.
4. Comb, icing.
A small plastic tool, usually triangular, with serrated edges in various patterns, for decorating icings and other pastry and decorative items.
5. Cutters.
Many types of cutters are used in the pastry department. Cookie cutters and pastry cutters, available in many shapes, cut decorative shapes by stamping them from rolled-out dough. Roller cutters have a handle on each end, like a rolling pin, and are rolled over rolled-out dough to cut repetitive shapes quickly and efficiently, with minimal loss of dough to trimmings and scraps. Roller cutters are often used for croissants
6. Pastry bag.
A cone-shaped cloth or plastic bag with an open end that can be fitted with metal or plastic tubes or tips of various shapes and sizes. Used for shaping and decorating with items such as icing and for filling certain kinds of pastries and other items, such as éclairs, and for portioning
creams,fillings, and doughs.
7. Peel.
A thin, flat board with a long handle, used for inserting and removing hearth breads from deck ovens.
8. Roller docker.
A tool that pierces holes in rolled-out dough to prevent bubbling during baking.
It consists of a handle attached to a rotating tube fitted with rows of spikes.
9. Rolling pins.
Many types of rolling pins are used in the bakeshop for rolling out doughs. Perhaps the most versatile pin, used for most general rolling tasks, is simply a solid hardwood rod, about 2 in. (5 cm) thick and 20 in. (50 cm) long. A French rolling pin is about 2 in. (5 cm) thick at the center and tapered toward the ends. It is useful for rolling pie doughs and other doughs that
must be rolled to a circular shape. For large quantities or heavy work, a heavy ball-bearing pin may be used.This pin is 3–4 in. (8–10 cm) thick and has a swiveling rod inserted through the center, with a handle at each end. Textured rolling pins are used to emboss designs,such as a basketweave pattern, in sheets of marzipan and pastillage.
10. Scrapers.
A bench scraper, also called a dough scraper, is a small rectangle of stainless steel with a handle along one of the long edges. It is used for cutting and portioning dough and for scraping tabletops. A bowl scraper is a piece of plastic about the same size but with one curved edge and no handle. It is used for scraping out the contents of mixing bowls.
11. Sieve.
A round metal screen supported in a stainless-steel hoop frame. It is used for sifting flour and other dry ingredients. Also called a drum sieve or tamis (pronounced tah-mee).
12. Strainer.
A round-bottomed, cup-shaped tool made of screen mesh or perforated metal, with a handle on one side. Used for separating solids from liquids, such as draining the juice from fruit. Screen-mesh
strainers can also be used for sifting dry ingredients, like a sieve.
13. Turntable.
A round, flat disk that swivels freely on a pedestal base. Used for holding cakes for decorating.
14. Whip.
Loops of stainless-steel wire fastened to a handle. Whips with a few stiff wires are used for mixing and blending, and whips with many flexible wires are used for whipping foams, such as whipped cream and egg foams. Also called whisk.
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
AND EQUIPMENT
1. Acetate.
A type of clear plastic. Acetate strips are used for lining charlotte molds (see above) in the production of certain cakes, pastries, and refrigerated desserts.For retail display, the strips can be left on after the charlotte rings are removed to support the dessert while displaying the layers.
2. Couche.
A sheet of heavy linen or canvas, used for supporting certain breads, such as baguettes, as they are proofed.The cloth is placed on a sheet pan and pleated to form troughs to hold the loaves so they can proof without spreading.
3. Hydrometer.
Also called a sugar densimeter, saccharometer, and Baumé hydrometer. Used to test the density of sugar syrups. (Sometimes called a thermometer, but this is inaccurate because it doesn’t measure temperature.) It is a glass tube that is weighted at one end. It is floated in the solution to be tested, and because it floats higher in denser solutions, the density can be read off the scale marked along the length of the tube, at the point where the surface of the liquid meets the tube.
4. Ice cream freezer.
Machine for churning and freezing ice creams and sorbets. It consists of a large refrigerated canister or container with a paddle, called a dasher, that rotates inside.The ice cream or sorbet mix freezes against the walls of the canister but is continually scraped off the walls and mixed to prevent the formation of ice crystals. Unlike home models, which depend on a salted ice water mixture to create freezing temperatures, commercial ice cream freezers contain a built-in electrically operated freezing unit.
5. Marble.
A stone material used for tabletop or work surfaces in pastry shops.The hard, cool surface of marble is ideal for working with various pastry doughs as well as for tempering chocolate and for some decorative work such as pastillage. Marble slabs may be installed on top of under-thecounter refrigerated storage boxes. This keeps the marble cool even in warm weather.
6. Parchment paper.
Also called baking paper or silicone paper. Treated nonstick sheets of paper, sized to fit standard sheet pans.When used to line pans, they eliminate the need for greasing the pans. Also used to make piping cones for decorative work.
7. Rack, cooling.
Wire racks used to hold baked goods while cooling. They allow air circulation around the items.
8. Silicone mat.
Flexible fiberglass mat coated with nonstick silicone, used to line baking sheets. Available to fit full and half-size sheet pans. Also used in sugar work.They withstand temperatures up to about 480°F (250°C) and can be reused indefinitely if well cared for and not folded or creased. There are several manufacturers of silicone mats, but they are often known by one brand name, Silpat.
9. Thermometers.
Thermometers have many uses in the bakery, and there are many types of specialized thermometers. The sugar thermometer, also called a candy thermometer, is one of the most important. It is used for measuring the temperature, and hence the concentration, of boiling sugar syrups .The chocolate thermometer is used for tempering chocolate.Other thermometers measure the temperature of bread doughs, frying fat, and the interiors of ovens, refrigerators, and freezers (to check the accuracy of the equipment’s thermostat).
Friday, February 27, 2009
Some Extra Knowledge...
MIXING AND GLUTEN
DEVELOPMENT
Gluten is a substance made up of proteins present in wheat flour. It gives structure and strength to baked goods. In order for gluten to be developed, the proteins must first absorb water. Then,as the dough or batter is mixed or kneaded,the gluten forms long,elastic strands. As the dough or batter is leavened, these strands capture the gases in tiny pockets or cells, and we say the product rises. When proteins are heated, they coagulate.This means they become firm or solidify.You are familiar with this process in the case of eggs, which are liquid when raw but firm when cooked. This process is also important in baking.When dough or batter is baked, the gluten, like all proteins,coagulates or solidifies and gives structure to the product.
CONTROLLING GLUTEN
Flour is mostly starch, as you know, but it is the protein or gluten content, not the starch, that concerns the baker most. Gluten proteins are needed to give structure to baked goods. Bakers must be able to control the gluten, however. For example, we want French bread to be firm and chewy, which requires much gluten. On the other hand,we want cakes to be tender,which means we want very little gluten development. Ingredient proportions and mixing methods are determined, in part, by how they affect the development of gluten.The baker has several methods for adjusting gluten development:
1. Selection of flours Wheat flours are classified as strong or weak, depending on their protein content. Strong flours come from hard wheat and have a high protein content. Weak flours come from soft wheat and have a low protein content. Thus, we use strong flours for breads and weak flours for cakes. Only wheat flour develops enough gluten to make bread.To make bread from rye or other grains, the formula must be balanced with some highgluten flour, or the bread will be heavy.
2. Shortening Any fat used in baking is called a shortening because it shortens gluten strands. It does this by surrounding the particles and lubricating them so they do not stick together.Thus, fats are tenderizers.
A cookie or pastry that is very crumbly, which is due to high fat content and little gluten development, is said to be short. You can see why French bread has little or no fat, while cakes contain a great deal.
3. Liquid Because gluten proteins must absorb water before they can be developed, the amount of water in a formula can affect toughness or tenderness. Pie crusts and crisp cookies, for instance, are made with very little liquid in order to keep them tender.
4. Mixing methods In general, the more a dough or batter is mixed, the more the gluten develops.Thus, bread doughs are mixed or kneaded for a long time to develop the gluten. Pie crusts, muffins, and other products that must be tender are mixed for a short time. It is possible to overmix bread dough,however. Gluten strands will stretch only so far. They will break if the dough is overmixed.
THE BAKING PROCESS
The changes to a dough or batter as it bakes are basically the same in all baked products, from breads to cookies and cakes. You should know what these changes are so you can learn how to control them. The stages in the baking process are as follows:
1. Formation and expansion of gases The gases primarily responsible for leavening baked goods are carbon dioxide, which is released by the action of yeast and by baking powder and baking soda; air, which is incorporated into doughs and batters during mixing; and steam, which is
formed during baking. Some gases—such as carbon dioxide in proofed bread dough and air in sponge cake batters—are already present in the dough. As they are heated, the gases expand and leaven the product. Some gases are not formed until heat is applied.Yeast and baking powder form gases rapidly when first placed in the oven. Steam is also formed as the moisture of the dough is heated. Leavening agents are discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.
2. Trapping of the gases in air cells As the gases are formed and expand,they are trapped in a stretchable network formed by the proteins in the dough.These proteins are primarily gluten and sometimes egg protein. Without gluten or egg protein, most of the gases would escape, and the product would be poorly leavened.Breads without enough gluten are heavy.
3. Gelatinization of starches The starches absorb moisture,expand,and become firmer. This contributes to structure. Gelatinization of starches begins at about 140°F (60°C).
4. Coagulation of proteins Like all proteins, gluten and egg proteins coagulate or solidify when they reach high enough temperatures. This process gives most of the structure to baked goods. Coagulation begins when the temperature of the dough reaches about 165°F (74°C). Correct baking temperature is important. If the temperature is too high, coagulation starts too soon, before the expansion of gases reaches its peak. The resulting product has poor volume or a split crust. If the temperature is too low, the proteins do not coagulate soon enough, and
the product may collapse.
5. Evaporation of some of the water This takes place throughout the baking process. If a baked product of a specific weight is required, allowance must be made for moisture loss when scaling the dough. For example, to get a 1-lb loaf of baked bread, it is necessary to scale about 18 oz dough.The percentage of weight loss varies greatly, depending on such factors as proportion of surface area to volume, baking time, and whether the item is baked in a pan or directly on the oven hearth.
6. Melting of shortenings Different shortenings melt and release trapped gases at different temperatures, so the proper shortening should be selected for each product.
7. Crust formation and browning A crust is formed as water evaporates from the surface and leaves it dry. Browning occurs when sugars caramelize and starches and sugars undergo certain chemical changes caused by heat. This contributes to flavor. Milk, sugar, and egg increase browning.
STALING
Staling is the change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to a change of structure and a loss of moisture by the starch granules. Stale baked goods have lost their fresh-baked aroma and are firmer, drier, and more crumbly than fresh products. Prevention of staling is a major concern of the baker, because most baked goods lose quality rapidly. Staling begins almost as soon as the baked items are taken from the oven. There are, apparently, two factors in staling. The first is loss of moisture, or drying.This is apparent, for example,when a slice of fresh bread is left exposed to air. It soon becomes dry to the touch. The second factor is a chemical change in the structure of the starch.This process, called starch retrogradation, occurs even when little or no moisture is lost.This means that even a well-wrapped loaf of bread will eventually stale. Chemical staling is rapid at refrigerator temperatures, but it nearly stops at freezer temperatures. Thus, bread should not be stored in the refrigerator. It should be left at room temperature for short-term storage or frozen for longterm storage.
Chemical staling, if it is not too great, can be partially reversed by heating. Breads, muffins, and coffee cakes, for example, are frequently refreshed by placing them briefly in an oven. Remember, however, that this also results in more loss of moisture,so the items should be reheated only just before they are to be served. Loss of crispness is caused by absorption of moisture, so, in a sense, it is the opposite of staling.The crusts of hard-crusted breads absorb moisture from the crumb and become soft and leathery. Reheating these products to refresh them not only reverses chemical staling of the crumb but also recrisps the crusts. Loss of crispness is also a problem with low-moisture products such as cookies and pie crusts. The problem is usually solved by proper storage in airtight wraps or containers to protect the products from moisture in the air. Prebaked pie shells should be filled as close to service time as possible. In addition to refreshing baked goods in the oven, three main techniques are used to slow staling:
1. Protecting the product from air Two examples of protecting baked goods are wrapping bread in plastic and covering cakes with icing, especially icing that is thick and rich in fat. Hard-crusted breads, which stale very rapidly, should not be wrapped, or the crusts will quickly become soft and leathery. These bread products should always be served very fresh.
2. Adding moisture retainers to the formula Fats and sugars are good moisture retainers, so products high in these ingredients keep best. Some of the best French bread has no fat at all, so it must be served within hours of baking or it will begin to stale. For longer keeping, bakers often add a very small amount of fat and/or sugar to the formula.
3. Freezing Baked goods frozen before they become stale maintain quality for longer periods. For best results, freeze soon after baking in a blast freezer at −40°F (−40°C), and maintain at or below 0°F (−18°C) until ready to thaw. Breads should be served very quickly after thawing. Frozen breads may be reheated with excellent results if they are to be served immediately. Refrigeration, on the other hand, speeds staling. Only baked goods that could become health hazards, such as those with cream fillings, are refrigerated.
DEVELOPMENT
Gluten is a substance made up of proteins present in wheat flour. It gives structure and strength to baked goods. In order for gluten to be developed, the proteins must first absorb water. Then,as the dough or batter is mixed or kneaded,the gluten forms long,elastic strands. As the dough or batter is leavened, these strands capture the gases in tiny pockets or cells, and we say the product rises. When proteins are heated, they coagulate.This means they become firm or solidify.You are familiar with this process in the case of eggs, which are liquid when raw but firm when cooked. This process is also important in baking.When dough or batter is baked, the gluten, like all proteins,coagulates or solidifies and gives structure to the product.
CONTROLLING GLUTEN
Flour is mostly starch, as you know, but it is the protein or gluten content, not the starch, that concerns the baker most. Gluten proteins are needed to give structure to baked goods. Bakers must be able to control the gluten, however. For example, we want French bread to be firm and chewy, which requires much gluten. On the other hand,we want cakes to be tender,which means we want very little gluten development. Ingredient proportions and mixing methods are determined, in part, by how they affect the development of gluten.The baker has several methods for adjusting gluten development:
1. Selection of flours Wheat flours are classified as strong or weak, depending on their protein content. Strong flours come from hard wheat and have a high protein content. Weak flours come from soft wheat and have a low protein content. Thus, we use strong flours for breads and weak flours for cakes. Only wheat flour develops enough gluten to make bread.To make bread from rye or other grains, the formula must be balanced with some highgluten flour, or the bread will be heavy.
2. Shortening Any fat used in baking is called a shortening because it shortens gluten strands. It does this by surrounding the particles and lubricating them so they do not stick together.Thus, fats are tenderizers.
A cookie or pastry that is very crumbly, which is due to high fat content and little gluten development, is said to be short. You can see why French bread has little or no fat, while cakes contain a great deal.
3. Liquid Because gluten proteins must absorb water before they can be developed, the amount of water in a formula can affect toughness or tenderness. Pie crusts and crisp cookies, for instance, are made with very little liquid in order to keep them tender.
4. Mixing methods In general, the more a dough or batter is mixed, the more the gluten develops.Thus, bread doughs are mixed or kneaded for a long time to develop the gluten. Pie crusts, muffins, and other products that must be tender are mixed for a short time. It is possible to overmix bread dough,however. Gluten strands will stretch only so far. They will break if the dough is overmixed.
THE BAKING PROCESS
The changes to a dough or batter as it bakes are basically the same in all baked products, from breads to cookies and cakes. You should know what these changes are so you can learn how to control them. The stages in the baking process are as follows:
1. Formation and expansion of gases The gases primarily responsible for leavening baked goods are carbon dioxide, which is released by the action of yeast and by baking powder and baking soda; air, which is incorporated into doughs and batters during mixing; and steam, which is
formed during baking. Some gases—such as carbon dioxide in proofed bread dough and air in sponge cake batters—are already present in the dough. As they are heated, the gases expand and leaven the product. Some gases are not formed until heat is applied.Yeast and baking powder form gases rapidly when first placed in the oven. Steam is also formed as the moisture of the dough is heated. Leavening agents are discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.
2. Trapping of the gases in air cells As the gases are formed and expand,they are trapped in a stretchable network formed by the proteins in the dough.These proteins are primarily gluten and sometimes egg protein. Without gluten or egg protein, most of the gases would escape, and the product would be poorly leavened.Breads without enough gluten are heavy.
3. Gelatinization of starches The starches absorb moisture,expand,and become firmer. This contributes to structure. Gelatinization of starches begins at about 140°F (60°C).
4. Coagulation of proteins Like all proteins, gluten and egg proteins coagulate or solidify when they reach high enough temperatures. This process gives most of the structure to baked goods. Coagulation begins when the temperature of the dough reaches about 165°F (74°C). Correct baking temperature is important. If the temperature is too high, coagulation starts too soon, before the expansion of gases reaches its peak. The resulting product has poor volume or a split crust. If the temperature is too low, the proteins do not coagulate soon enough, and
the product may collapse.
5. Evaporation of some of the water This takes place throughout the baking process. If a baked product of a specific weight is required, allowance must be made for moisture loss when scaling the dough. For example, to get a 1-lb loaf of baked bread, it is necessary to scale about 18 oz dough.The percentage of weight loss varies greatly, depending on such factors as proportion of surface area to volume, baking time, and whether the item is baked in a pan or directly on the oven hearth.
6. Melting of shortenings Different shortenings melt and release trapped gases at different temperatures, so the proper shortening should be selected for each product.
7. Crust formation and browning A crust is formed as water evaporates from the surface and leaves it dry. Browning occurs when sugars caramelize and starches and sugars undergo certain chemical changes caused by heat. This contributes to flavor. Milk, sugar, and egg increase browning.
STALING
Staling is the change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to a change of structure and a loss of moisture by the starch granules. Stale baked goods have lost their fresh-baked aroma and are firmer, drier, and more crumbly than fresh products. Prevention of staling is a major concern of the baker, because most baked goods lose quality rapidly. Staling begins almost as soon as the baked items are taken from the oven. There are, apparently, two factors in staling. The first is loss of moisture, or drying.This is apparent, for example,when a slice of fresh bread is left exposed to air. It soon becomes dry to the touch. The second factor is a chemical change in the structure of the starch.This process, called starch retrogradation, occurs even when little or no moisture is lost.This means that even a well-wrapped loaf of bread will eventually stale. Chemical staling is rapid at refrigerator temperatures, but it nearly stops at freezer temperatures. Thus, bread should not be stored in the refrigerator. It should be left at room temperature for short-term storage or frozen for longterm storage.
Chemical staling, if it is not too great, can be partially reversed by heating. Breads, muffins, and coffee cakes, for example, are frequently refreshed by placing them briefly in an oven. Remember, however, that this also results in more loss of moisture,so the items should be reheated only just before they are to be served. Loss of crispness is caused by absorption of moisture, so, in a sense, it is the opposite of staling.The crusts of hard-crusted breads absorb moisture from the crumb and become soft and leathery. Reheating these products to refresh them not only reverses chemical staling of the crumb but also recrisps the crusts. Loss of crispness is also a problem with low-moisture products such as cookies and pie crusts. The problem is usually solved by proper storage in airtight wraps or containers to protect the products from moisture in the air. Prebaked pie shells should be filled as close to service time as possible. In addition to refreshing baked goods in the oven, three main techniques are used to slow staling:
1. Protecting the product from air Two examples of protecting baked goods are wrapping bread in plastic and covering cakes with icing, especially icing that is thick and rich in fat. Hard-crusted breads, which stale very rapidly, should not be wrapped, or the crusts will quickly become soft and leathery. These bread products should always be served very fresh.
2. Adding moisture retainers to the formula Fats and sugars are good moisture retainers, so products high in these ingredients keep best. Some of the best French bread has no fat at all, so it must be served within hours of baking or it will begin to stale. For longer keeping, bakers often add a very small amount of fat and/or sugar to the formula.
3. Freezing Baked goods frozen before they become stale maintain quality for longer periods. For best results, freeze soon after baking in a blast freezer at −40°F (−40°C), and maintain at or below 0°F (−18°C) until ready to thaw. Breads should be served very quickly after thawing. Frozen breads may be reheated with excellent results if they are to be served immediately. Refrigeration, on the other hand, speeds staling. Only baked goods that could become health hazards, such as those with cream fillings, are refrigerated.
Thursday, February 26, 2009
FORMULAS AND MEASUREMENT
Bakers generally talk about formulas rather than recipes. If this sounds to you more like a chemistry lab than a food production facility, it is with good reason. The bakeshop is very much like a chemistry laboratory, both in the scientific accuracy of the procedures and in the complex reactions that take place during mixing and baking.
MEASUREMENT
Ingredients are almost always weighed in the bakeshop, rather than measured by volume, because measurement by weight is more accurate. Accuracy of measurement, as we have said, is essential in the bakeshop. Unlike home baking recipes, a professional baker’s formula will not call for 6 cups flour, for example.
To demonstrate to yourself the importance of weighing rather than measuring by volume, measure a cup of flour in two ways:
(a) Sift some flour and lightly spoon it into a dry measure. Level the top and weigh the flour.
(b) Scoop some unsifted flour into the same measure and pack it lightly. Level the
top and weigh the flour. Note the difference.No wonder home recipes can be so inconsistent!
The baker’s term for weighing ingredients is scaling.
The following ingredients, and only these ingredients, may sometimes be measured by volume, at the ratio of 1 pint per pound or 1 liter per kilogram:
• Water • Milk • Eggs
Volume measure is often used when scaling water for small or mediumsized batches of bread. Results are generally good. However, whenever accuracy is critical, it is better to weigh.This is because a pint of water actually weighs slightly more than a pound, or approximately 16.7 oz. (This figure varies with the temperature of the water.)
For convenience, volume measures of liquids are frequently used when products other than baked flour goods—such as sauces, syrups, puddings, and custards—are being made.
Units of Measure
The system of measurement used in the United States is very complicated. Even those who have used the system all their lives sometimes have trouble remembering things like how many fluid ounces are in a quart and how many feet are in a mile.
The Metric System
The United States is the only major country that uses the complex system of measurement we have just described. Other countries use a much simpler system called the metric system.
Abbreviations of U.S. Units of Measure Used
pound(lb)
ounce (oz)
gallon (gal)
quart (qt)
pint (pt)
fluid ounce( fl oz)
tablespoon (tbsp)
teaspoon (tsp)
inch (in)
foot(ft)
In the metric system, there is one basic unit for each type of measurement:
The gram is the basic unit of weight.
The liter is the basic unit of volume.
The meter is the basic unit of length.
The degree Celsius is the basic unit of temperature.
Larger or smaller units are simply made by multiplying or dividing by 10, 100,
1000, and so on.These divisions are expressed by prefixes. The ones you need
to know are:
kilo- = 1000
deci- = 1⁄10 or 0.1
centi- = 1⁄100 or 0.01
milli- = 1⁄1000 or 0.001
Formulas and Measurement
Metric Units
Basic units
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
weight gram g
volume liter L
length meter m
temperature degree Celsius °C
Divisions and multiples
Prefix/Example Meaning Abbreviation
kilo- 1000 k
kilogram 1000 grams kg
deci- 1⁄10 d
deciliter 0.1 liter dL
centi- 1⁄100 c
centimeter 0.01 meter cm
milli- 1⁄1000 m
millimeter 0.001 meter mm
Converting to Metric
Most people think the metric system is much harder to learn than it really is. This is because they think about metric units in terms of U.S. units. They read that there are 28.35 grams in an ounce and are immediately convinced that they will never be able to learn metrics. Do not worry about being able to convert U.S. units into metric units and vice versa. This is a very important point to remember, especially if you think that the metric system might be hard to learn. The reason for this is simple.You will usually be working in either one system or the other.You will rarely, if ever, have to convert from one to the other. (An exception might be if you have equipment based on one system and you want to use a formula written in the other.) Many people today own imported cars and repair them with metric tools without ever worrying about how many millimeters are in an inch. Similarly, if and when American bakeshops and kitchens change to the metric system, American cooks and bakers will use scales that measure in grams and kilograms, volume measures that measure in liters and deciliters, and thermometers that measure in degrees Celsius, and they will use formulas that indicate these units.They will not have to worry about how many grams are in an ounce. To become accustomed to working in metric units, it is helpful to have a feel for how large the units are.The following rough equivalents may be used to help you visualize metric units. They are not exact conversion factors.
A kilogram is slightly more than 2 lb.
A gram is about 1⁄30 oz. A half teaspoon of flour weighs a little less than a
gram.
A liter is slightly more than a quart.
A deciliter is slightly less than a half cup.
A centiliter is about 2 tsp.
A meter is slightly more than 3 ft.
A centimeter is about 3⁄8 in.
0°C is the freezing point of water (32°F).
100°C is the boiling point of water (212°F).
An increase or decrease of 1 degree Celsius is equivalent to about 2
degrees Fahrenheit.
Metric Formulas and Recipes
American industry will probably adopt the metric system someday.Many recipe writers are already eager to get a head start and are printing metric equivalents. As a result, you will see recipes calling for 454 g flour, 28.35 g butter, or a baking temperature of 191°C.No wonder people are afraid of the metric system! Kitchens in metric countries do not work with such impractical numbers, any more than we normally use figures like 1 lb 11⁄4 oz flour, 2.19 oz butter, or a baking temperature of 348°F.That would defeat the whole purpose of the metric system,which is to be simple and practical. If you have a chance to look at a French cookbook, you will see nice, round numbers such as 1 kg, 200 g, and 4 dL.
The metric measures in the formulas in this book are NOT equivalent to the U.S. measures given alongside them.You should think of the metric portion of the formulas as separate formulas with yields that are close to but not the same as the yields of the U.S. formulas. To give exact equivalents would require using awkward, impractical numbers. If you have metric equipment,use the metric units, and if you have U.S.equipment,use the U.S. units.You should rarely have to worry about converting between the two. For the most part, the total yield of the metric formulas in this book is close to the yield of the U.S. formulas while keeping the ingredient proportions the same. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to keep the proportions exactly the same because the U.S. system is not decimal-based like the metric system. In some cases, the metric quantities produce slightly different results due to the varying proportions, but these differences are usually extremely small.
The principle of using a baker’s scale is simple: The scale must balance before setting the weights, and it must balance again after scaling. The following procedure applies to the most commonly used type of baker’s scale.
1. Set the scale scoop or other container on the left side of the scale.
2. Balance the scale by placing counterweights on the right side
and/or by adjusting the ounce weight on the horizontal bar.
3. Set the scale for the desired weight by placing weights on the right side
and/or by moving the ounce weight.
For example, to set the scale for 1 lb 8 oz, place a 1-lb weight on the right side and
move the ounce weight to the right 8 oz. If the ounce weight is already over 8 oz, so
that you cannot move it another 8, add 2 lb to the right side of the scale and subtract 8
ounces by moving the ounce weight 8 places to the left. The result is still 1 lb 8 oz.
4. Add the ingredient being scaled to the left side until the scale balances.
MEASURING BY WEIGHT
A good balance scale should be accurate to 1⁄4 oz (0.25 oz) or, if metric, to 5 g. Dry ingredients weighing less than 1⁄4 oz can be scaled by physically dividing larger quantities into equal portions. For example, to scale 1⁄16 oz
(0.06 oz),first weigh out 1⁄4 oz,then divide this into four equal piles using a small knife.
For fine pastry work, a small battery-operated digital scale is often more useful than a large balance scale. A good digital scale is relatively inexpensive. It can instantly measure quantities to the nearest 1⁄8 oz or the nearest 2 g. Most digital scales have a zero or tare button that sets the indicated weight to zero. For example, you may set a container on the scale, set the weight to zero, add the desired quantity of the first ingredient, again set the weight to zero, add the second ingredient, and so on. This speeds the weighing of dry ingredients that are to be sifted together, for example.However, remember that careful weighing on a good scale is more accurate.
British bakers have a convenient method for measuring baking powder when small quantities are needed.They use a mixture called scone flour. To make a pound of scone flour, combine 15 oz flour and 1 oz baking powder; sift together three times.One ounce (1⁄16 lb) scone flour thus contains 1⁄16 (0.06 oz) baking powder. For each 1⁄16 oz baking powder you need in a formula, substitute 1 oz scone flour for 1 oz of the flour called for in the formula. In order to make formula conversions and calculations easier, fractions of ounces that appear in the ingredient tables of the formulas in this book are written as decimals.Thus,11⁄ 2 oz is written as 1.5 oz and 1⁄4 oz is written as 0.25 oz.
BAKER’S PERCENTAGES
Bakers use a simple but versatile system of percentages for expressing their formulas. Baker’s percentages express the amount of each ingredient used as a percentage of the amount of flour used. To put it differently, the percentage of each ingredient is its total weight divided by the weight of the flour,multiplied by 100%, or:
100% = % of ingredient
Thus, flour is always 100%. If two kinds of flour are used, their total is 100%. Any ingredient that weighs the same as the amount of flour used is also given as 100%.The cake formula ingredients listed on page 11 illustrate how these percentages are used.Check the figures with the above equation to make sure you understand them. Please remember that these numbers do not refer to the percentage of the total yield.They are simply a way of expressing ingredient proportions. The total yield of these percentage numbers will always be greater than 100%. The advantages of using baker’s percentages is that the formula is easily adapted for any yield, and single ingredients may be varied and other ingredients added without changing the whole formulation. For example, you can add raisins to a muffin mix formula while keeping the percentages of all the other ingredients the same. Clearly, a percentage system based on the weight of flour can be used only when flour is a major ingredient, as in breads,cakes,and cookies.However, this principle can be used in other formulas as well by selecting a major ingredient and establishing it as 100%. In this book, whenever an ingredient other than flour is used as the base of 100%.
FORMULA YIELDS
Procedure for Calculating the Weight of an Ingredient
When the Weight of Flour Is Known
1. Change the ingredient percentage to decimal form by moving the decimal point 2 places to the left.
2. Multiply the weight of the flour by this decimal figure to get the weight of the ingredient.
Example: A formula calls for 20% sugar and you are using 10 lb of flour. How much sugar do you need?
20% = 0.20
10 lb × 0.20 = 2 lb sugar
Note: In the U.S. system, weights must normally be expressed all in one unit, either ounces or pounds, in order for the calculations to
work. Unless quantities are very large, it is usually easiest to express weights in ounces.
Example: Determine 50% of 1 lb 8 oz.
1 lb 8 oz = 24 oz
0.50 × 24 oz = 12 oz
Example (metric): A formula calls for 20% sugar and you are using 5000 g (5 kg) flour. How much sugar do you need?
20% = 0.20
5000 g × 0.20 = 1000 g sugar
Ingredients U.S. Weight Metric Weight %
Cake flour 5 lb 2500 g 100
Sugar 5 lb 2500 g 100
Baking powder 4 oz 125 g 5
Salt 2 oz 63 g 2.5
Emulsified shortening 2 lb 8 oz 1250 g 50
Skim milk 3 lb 1500 g 60
Egg whites 3 lb 1500 g 60
Total weight: 18 lb 14 oz 9438 g 377.5%
Procedure for Converting a Formula to a New Yield
1. Change the total percentage to decimal form by moving the decimal point 2 places to the left.
2. Divide the desired yield by this decimal figure to get the weight of flour needed.
3. If necessary, round off this number to the next highest figure. This will allow for losses in mixing, makeup, and panning, and it will
make calculations easier.
4. Use the weight of flour and remaining ingredient percentages to calculate the weights of the other ingredients, as in the previous
procedure.
Example: In the sample cake formula in the table, how much flour is needed if you require 6 lb (or 3000 g) cake batter?
377.5% = 3.775
6 lb = 96 oz
96 oz/3.775 = 25.43 oz or, rounded off, 26 oz (1 lb 10 oz)
3000 g/3.775 = 794.7 g or, rounded off, 800 g
SELECTION OF INGREDIENTS
In addition to measuring, there is another basic rule of accuracy in the
bakeshop: Use the exact ingredients specified.
As you will learn in the next chapter, different flours, shortenings, and other
ingredients do not function alike. Bakers’ formulas are balanced for specific
ingredients.For example, do not substitute bread flour for pastry flour or regular
shortening for emulsified shortening.They won’t work the same way.
Occasionally, a substitution may be made, such as active dry yeast for
compressed yeast but not without adjusting the quantities and
rebalancing the formula.
MEASUREMENT
Ingredients are almost always weighed in the bakeshop, rather than measured by volume, because measurement by weight is more accurate. Accuracy of measurement, as we have said, is essential in the bakeshop. Unlike home baking recipes, a professional baker’s formula will not call for 6 cups flour, for example.
To demonstrate to yourself the importance of weighing rather than measuring by volume, measure a cup of flour in two ways:
(a) Sift some flour and lightly spoon it into a dry measure. Level the top and weigh the flour.
(b) Scoop some unsifted flour into the same measure and pack it lightly. Level the
top and weigh the flour. Note the difference.No wonder home recipes can be so inconsistent!
The baker’s term for weighing ingredients is scaling.
The following ingredients, and only these ingredients, may sometimes be measured by volume, at the ratio of 1 pint per pound or 1 liter per kilogram:
• Water • Milk • Eggs
Volume measure is often used when scaling water for small or mediumsized batches of bread. Results are generally good. However, whenever accuracy is critical, it is better to weigh.This is because a pint of water actually weighs slightly more than a pound, or approximately 16.7 oz. (This figure varies with the temperature of the water.)
For convenience, volume measures of liquids are frequently used when products other than baked flour goods—such as sauces, syrups, puddings, and custards—are being made.
Units of Measure
The system of measurement used in the United States is very complicated. Even those who have used the system all their lives sometimes have trouble remembering things like how many fluid ounces are in a quart and how many feet are in a mile.
The Metric System
The United States is the only major country that uses the complex system of measurement we have just described. Other countries use a much simpler system called the metric system.
Abbreviations of U.S. Units of Measure Used
pound(lb)
ounce (oz)
gallon (gal)
quart (qt)
pint (pt)
fluid ounce( fl oz)
tablespoon (tbsp)
teaspoon (tsp)
inch (in)
foot(ft)
In the metric system, there is one basic unit for each type of measurement:
The gram is the basic unit of weight.
The liter is the basic unit of volume.
The meter is the basic unit of length.
The degree Celsius is the basic unit of temperature.
Larger or smaller units are simply made by multiplying or dividing by 10, 100,
1000, and so on.These divisions are expressed by prefixes. The ones you need
to know are:
kilo- = 1000
deci- = 1⁄10 or 0.1
centi- = 1⁄100 or 0.01
milli- = 1⁄1000 or 0.001
Formulas and Measurement
Metric Units
Basic units
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
weight gram g
volume liter L
length meter m
temperature degree Celsius °C
Divisions and multiples
Prefix/Example Meaning Abbreviation
kilo- 1000 k
kilogram 1000 grams kg
deci- 1⁄10 d
deciliter 0.1 liter dL
centi- 1⁄100 c
centimeter 0.01 meter cm
milli- 1⁄1000 m
millimeter 0.001 meter mm
Converting to Metric
Most people think the metric system is much harder to learn than it really is. This is because they think about metric units in terms of U.S. units. They read that there are 28.35 grams in an ounce and are immediately convinced that they will never be able to learn metrics. Do not worry about being able to convert U.S. units into metric units and vice versa. This is a very important point to remember, especially if you think that the metric system might be hard to learn. The reason for this is simple.You will usually be working in either one system or the other.You will rarely, if ever, have to convert from one to the other. (An exception might be if you have equipment based on one system and you want to use a formula written in the other.) Many people today own imported cars and repair them with metric tools without ever worrying about how many millimeters are in an inch. Similarly, if and when American bakeshops and kitchens change to the metric system, American cooks and bakers will use scales that measure in grams and kilograms, volume measures that measure in liters and deciliters, and thermometers that measure in degrees Celsius, and they will use formulas that indicate these units.They will not have to worry about how many grams are in an ounce. To become accustomed to working in metric units, it is helpful to have a feel for how large the units are.The following rough equivalents may be used to help you visualize metric units. They are not exact conversion factors.
A kilogram is slightly more than 2 lb.
A gram is about 1⁄30 oz. A half teaspoon of flour weighs a little less than a
gram.
A liter is slightly more than a quart.
A deciliter is slightly less than a half cup.
A centiliter is about 2 tsp.
A meter is slightly more than 3 ft.
A centimeter is about 3⁄8 in.
0°C is the freezing point of water (32°F).
100°C is the boiling point of water (212°F).
An increase or decrease of 1 degree Celsius is equivalent to about 2
degrees Fahrenheit.
Metric Formulas and Recipes
American industry will probably adopt the metric system someday.Many recipe writers are already eager to get a head start and are printing metric equivalents. As a result, you will see recipes calling for 454 g flour, 28.35 g butter, or a baking temperature of 191°C.No wonder people are afraid of the metric system! Kitchens in metric countries do not work with such impractical numbers, any more than we normally use figures like 1 lb 11⁄4 oz flour, 2.19 oz butter, or a baking temperature of 348°F.That would defeat the whole purpose of the metric system,which is to be simple and practical. If you have a chance to look at a French cookbook, you will see nice, round numbers such as 1 kg, 200 g, and 4 dL.
The metric measures in the formulas in this book are NOT equivalent to the U.S. measures given alongside them.You should think of the metric portion of the formulas as separate formulas with yields that are close to but not the same as the yields of the U.S. formulas. To give exact equivalents would require using awkward, impractical numbers. If you have metric equipment,use the metric units, and if you have U.S.equipment,use the U.S. units.You should rarely have to worry about converting between the two. For the most part, the total yield of the metric formulas in this book is close to the yield of the U.S. formulas while keeping the ingredient proportions the same. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to keep the proportions exactly the same because the U.S. system is not decimal-based like the metric system. In some cases, the metric quantities produce slightly different results due to the varying proportions, but these differences are usually extremely small.
The principle of using a baker’s scale is simple: The scale must balance before setting the weights, and it must balance again after scaling. The following procedure applies to the most commonly used type of baker’s scale.
1. Set the scale scoop or other container on the left side of the scale.
2. Balance the scale by placing counterweights on the right side
and/or by adjusting the ounce weight on the horizontal bar.
3. Set the scale for the desired weight by placing weights on the right side
and/or by moving the ounce weight.
For example, to set the scale for 1 lb 8 oz, place a 1-lb weight on the right side and
move the ounce weight to the right 8 oz. If the ounce weight is already over 8 oz, so
that you cannot move it another 8, add 2 lb to the right side of the scale and subtract 8
ounces by moving the ounce weight 8 places to the left. The result is still 1 lb 8 oz.
4. Add the ingredient being scaled to the left side until the scale balances.
MEASURING BY WEIGHT
A good balance scale should be accurate to 1⁄4 oz (0.25 oz) or, if metric, to 5 g. Dry ingredients weighing less than 1⁄4 oz can be scaled by physically dividing larger quantities into equal portions. For example, to scale 1⁄16 oz
(0.06 oz),first weigh out 1⁄4 oz,then divide this into four equal piles using a small knife.
For fine pastry work, a small battery-operated digital scale is often more useful than a large balance scale. A good digital scale is relatively inexpensive. It can instantly measure quantities to the nearest 1⁄8 oz or the nearest 2 g. Most digital scales have a zero or tare button that sets the indicated weight to zero. For example, you may set a container on the scale, set the weight to zero, add the desired quantity of the first ingredient, again set the weight to zero, add the second ingredient, and so on. This speeds the weighing of dry ingredients that are to be sifted together, for example.However, remember that careful weighing on a good scale is more accurate.
British bakers have a convenient method for measuring baking powder when small quantities are needed.They use a mixture called scone flour. To make a pound of scone flour, combine 15 oz flour and 1 oz baking powder; sift together three times.One ounce (1⁄16 lb) scone flour thus contains 1⁄16 (0.06 oz) baking powder. For each 1⁄16 oz baking powder you need in a formula, substitute 1 oz scone flour for 1 oz of the flour called for in the formula. In order to make formula conversions and calculations easier, fractions of ounces that appear in the ingredient tables of the formulas in this book are written as decimals.Thus,11⁄ 2 oz is written as 1.5 oz and 1⁄4 oz is written as 0.25 oz.
BAKER’S PERCENTAGES
Bakers use a simple but versatile system of percentages for expressing their formulas. Baker’s percentages express the amount of each ingredient used as a percentage of the amount of flour used. To put it differently, the percentage of each ingredient is its total weight divided by the weight of the flour,multiplied by 100%, or:
100% = % of ingredient
Thus, flour is always 100%. If two kinds of flour are used, their total is 100%. Any ingredient that weighs the same as the amount of flour used is also given as 100%.The cake formula ingredients listed on page 11 illustrate how these percentages are used.Check the figures with the above equation to make sure you understand them. Please remember that these numbers do not refer to the percentage of the total yield.They are simply a way of expressing ingredient proportions. The total yield of these percentage numbers will always be greater than 100%. The advantages of using baker’s percentages is that the formula is easily adapted for any yield, and single ingredients may be varied and other ingredients added without changing the whole formulation. For example, you can add raisins to a muffin mix formula while keeping the percentages of all the other ingredients the same. Clearly, a percentage system based on the weight of flour can be used only when flour is a major ingredient, as in breads,cakes,and cookies.However, this principle can be used in other formulas as well by selecting a major ingredient and establishing it as 100%. In this book, whenever an ingredient other than flour is used as the base of 100%.
FORMULA YIELDS
Procedure for Calculating the Weight of an Ingredient
When the Weight of Flour Is Known
1. Change the ingredient percentage to decimal form by moving the decimal point 2 places to the left.
2. Multiply the weight of the flour by this decimal figure to get the weight of the ingredient.
Example: A formula calls for 20% sugar and you are using 10 lb of flour. How much sugar do you need?
20% = 0.20
10 lb × 0.20 = 2 lb sugar
Note: In the U.S. system, weights must normally be expressed all in one unit, either ounces or pounds, in order for the calculations to
work. Unless quantities are very large, it is usually easiest to express weights in ounces.
Example: Determine 50% of 1 lb 8 oz.
1 lb 8 oz = 24 oz
0.50 × 24 oz = 12 oz
Example (metric): A formula calls for 20% sugar and you are using 5000 g (5 kg) flour. How much sugar do you need?
20% = 0.20
5000 g × 0.20 = 1000 g sugar
Ingredients U.S. Weight Metric Weight %
Cake flour 5 lb 2500 g 100
Sugar 5 lb 2500 g 100
Baking powder 4 oz 125 g 5
Salt 2 oz 63 g 2.5
Emulsified shortening 2 lb 8 oz 1250 g 50
Skim milk 3 lb 1500 g 60
Egg whites 3 lb 1500 g 60
Total weight: 18 lb 14 oz 9438 g 377.5%
Procedure for Converting a Formula to a New Yield
1. Change the total percentage to decimal form by moving the decimal point 2 places to the left.
2. Divide the desired yield by this decimal figure to get the weight of flour needed.
3. If necessary, round off this number to the next highest figure. This will allow for losses in mixing, makeup, and panning, and it will
make calculations easier.
4. Use the weight of flour and remaining ingredient percentages to calculate the weights of the other ingredients, as in the previous
procedure.
Example: In the sample cake formula in the table, how much flour is needed if you require 6 lb (or 3000 g) cake batter?
377.5% = 3.775
6 lb = 96 oz
96 oz/3.775 = 25.43 oz or, rounded off, 26 oz (1 lb 10 oz)
3000 g/3.775 = 794.7 g or, rounded off, 800 g
SELECTION OF INGREDIENTS
In addition to measuring, there is another basic rule of accuracy in the
bakeshop: Use the exact ingredients specified.
As you will learn in the next chapter, different flours, shortenings, and other
ingredients do not function alike. Bakers’ formulas are balanced for specific
ingredients.For example, do not substitute bread flour for pastry flour or regular
shortening for emulsified shortening.They won’t work the same way.
Occasionally, a substitution may be made, such as active dry yeast for
compressed yeast but not without adjusting the quantities and
rebalancing the formula.
BAKING—HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Marie-Antoine CarêmeCall No. TX719.C27. copy 2, Vol.1. M.A. Carême. L'art de
la cuisine française au dix-neuviême siêcle. Traité
élémentaire et pratique, 1833. Division of Rare and
Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library.
Grains have been the most important staple food in the human diet since prehistoric times, so it is only a slight exaggeration to say that baking is almost
as old as the human race. Because of the lack of cooking utensils, it is probable that one of the earliest
grain preparations was made by toasting dry grains, pounding them to a meal with rocks, and mixing the meal to a paste with water. Later it was discovered
that some of this paste, if laid on a hot stone next to a fire, turned into a flatbread that was a little more appetizing than the plain paste. Unleavened
flatbreads, such as tortillas, are still important foods in many cultures.
A grain paste left to stand for a time sooner or later collects wild yeasts and begins to ferment. This was, no doubt, the beginning of leavened bread,although for most of human history the presence of yeast was mostly accidental.Eventually,people learned they could save a small part of the dough to leaven the next day’s batch. Not until relatively recent times, however, didbakers learn to control yeast with any accuracy.
By the time of the ancient Greeks, about five or six hundred years BCE, enclosed ovens, heated by wood fires, were in use. People took turns baking their breads in a large communal oven, unless they were wealthy enough to have their own oven. Several centuries later, ancient Rome saw the first mass production of breads, so the baking profession can be said to have started at that time.Many of the products made by the professional bakers contained quantities of honey and oil, so these foods might be called pastries rather than breads.That the primary
fat available was oil placed a limit on the kinds of pastries that could be made. Only a solid fat such as butter enables the pastry maker to produce the kinds of stiff doughs we are familiar with, such as pie doughs and short pastries. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, baking as a profession almost disappeared. Not until the latter part of the Middle Ages did baking and pastry
making begin to reappear as important professions in the service of the nobility. Bread baking continued to be performed by professional bakers, not homemakers, because it required ovens that needed almost constant tending. In much of Europe, tending ovens and making bread dough were separate operations. The oven tender maintained the oven, heated it properly, and
supervised the baking of the loaves that were brought to him. In early years, the oven may not have been near the workshops of the bakers, and one oven served the needs of several bakers. It is interesting to note that in many bakeries today, especially in the larger ones, this division of labor still exists. The chef who tends the ovens bakes the proofed breads and other products
that are brought to him or her and may not have any part in the mixing and makeup of these products.
It was also in the Middle Ages that bakers and pastry chefs in France formed guilds in order to protect and further their art. Regulations prohibited all but certified bakers from baking bread for sale, and the guilds had enough power to limit certification to their own members.The guilds, as well as the apprenticeship system, which was well developed by the sixteenth century,
also provided a way to pass the knowledge of the baker’s trade from generation to generation.
Bakers also made cakes from doughs or batters containing honey or other sweet ingredients, such as dried fruits. Many of these items had religious significance and were baked only for special occasions, such as the Twelfth Night cakes baked after Christmas. Such products nearly always had a dense texture, unlike the light confections we call cakes today.Nonsweetened pastry doughs were also made for such products as meat pies. In the 1400s, pastrychefs in France formed their own corporations and took pastry making away from bakers. From this point on, the profession of pastry making developed rapidly, and cooks developed many new kinds of pastry products.
The European discovery of the Americas in 1492 sparked a revolution in pastry making.Sugar and cocoa,brought from the new world,were available in the old world for the first time. Before, the only significant sweetener was honey. Once the new ingredients became widely available, baking and pastry became more and more sophisticated, with many new recipes being
developed. By the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many of the basic pastries that we know today, including laminated or layered doughs like puff pastry and Danish dough,were being made.
The nineteenth century saw the development of modern baking as we know it. After the French Revolution in 1789, many bakers and pastry cooks who had been servants in the houses of the nobility started independent businesses. Artisans competed for customers with the quality of their products. The general public—not just aristocrats and the well-to-do—were able to buy fine pastries. Some of the pastry shops started during that time still serve Parisians today.
The most famous chef of the early nineteenth century was Marie-Antoine Carême, also known as Antonin Carême, who lived from 1784 to 1833. His spectacular constructions of sugar and pastry earned him great fame, and he elevated the jobs of cook and pastry chef to respected professions.Carême’s book, Le Pâtissier Royal,was one of the first systematic explanations of the pastry chef’s art.
Ironically, most of Carême’s career was spent in the service of the nobility and royalty, in an era when the products of the bakers’ and pastry chefs’ craft were becoming more widely available to average citizens. Carême had little to do with the commercial and retail aspects of baking.
The nineteenth century was also a time of great technical progress. Automated processes enabled bakers to do many tasks with machines that once required a great deal of manual labor. The most important of these technological advances was the development of roller milling. Prior to this time, flour was milled by grinding grain between two stones. The resulting
flour then had to be sifted, or bolted, often numerous times, to separate the bran. The process was slow. This was a tremendous boost to the baking industry.
Another important development of the period was the new availability of flours from the wheat-growing regions of North America. These wheat varieties were higher in protein than those that could be grown in northern Europe, and the export of this wheat to Europe promoted the large-scale production of white bread.
In the twentieth century, advances in technology, from refrigeration to sophisticated ovens to air transportation that carries fresh ingredients around the world, contributed immeasurably to baking and pastry making. At the beginning of the twenty-first century,the popularity of fine breads and pastries is growing even faster than new chefs can be trained. Interestingly enough,
many of the technological advances in bread baking have sparked a reaction among bakers and consumers alike, who are looking to reclaim some of the flavors of old-fashioned breads that were lost as baking became more industrialized and baked goods became more refined, standardized, and— some would say—flavorless.Bakers are researching methods for producing the handmade sourdough breads of times past, and they are experimenting with
specialty flours in their search for flavor.
Those entering a career in baking or pastry making today find opportunities in three areas: restaurants and hotels, retail bakeries and pastry shops, and large-scale bakeries and industrial production of baked goods.
Monday, February 23, 2009
Types of Chocolate
Cacaoaka Cacao Nibs, Raw Cacao, Roasted Cacao, Ground Cacao
This is the cacao bean, minus the shell, and nothing else. You can buy cacao raw or roasted. Whole cacao is the whole bean, cacao nibs are crunched up pieces of bean, and ground cacao is powdered. Really the healthiest form of chocolate there is, cacao can sometimes be quite bitter.
Chocolate Liquor
This is the basis of all types of chocolate, formed by grinding cacao nibs into a smooth, liquid paste. Nothing is added, and it is not alcoholic. It naturally contains about 53% cocoa butter (fat).
Unsweetened Chocolateaka Chocolate, Baking Chocolate, Pure Chocolate, Bitter Chocolate
Chocolate liquor that has been allowed to cool and harden. It is used for baking and to make other types of chocolate. Many bakers prefer this type of chocolate for baking because they have more control over the flavor and sweetness.
Bittersweet Chocolateaka Semisweet Chocolate, Dark Chocolate
Contains at least 35% chocolate liquor, plus cocoa butter and sugar in varying amounts. There is no technical difference between bittersweet and semisweet types of chocolate, and they are often referred to as "dark." Note that there is such a thing as "bittersweet (or semisweet) baking chocolate," which is sweetened cocoa liquor without the added cocoa butter.
Sweet Chocolate
Contains at least 15% chocolate liquor, plus cocoa butter and sugar in varying amounts. Some people mistakenly refer to this as "bittersweet."
Milk Chocolate
Contains at least 10% chocolate liquor, plus cocoa butter and sugar in varying amounts, and at least 12% milk (milk, cream, milk powder, etc).
White Chocolate
White chocolate is not technically one of the types of chocolate because it does not contain any chocolate liquor. It must contain at least 20% cocoa butter and 14% milk, plus sugar in varying amounts.
Cocoaaka Cocoa Powder, Unsweetened Cocoa Powder, Unsweetened Cocoa
Is made by slamming chocolate liquor with a hydraulic press to expel the fat, i.e. the cocoa butter. What's left is allowed to harden, and then it is crushed into a powder. There is roughly 10-20% fat remaining in the powder. Cocoa powder is often used in low fat cooking because it retains the chocolate flavor but has much of the fat removed.
"Dutched" cocoa is formed by washing cocoa powder with an alkali solution of potassium carbonate. This darkens the color and neutralizes the acidity of the powder. Very alkalized cocoa is called black cocoa, which gives Oreos their unique look.
How do you know which to use in a recipe? Most American recipes use plain cocoa powder - good ol' Hershey's is plain cocoa. If a recipe needs Dutch cocoa, it will usually specify it. In general, regular cocoa is used in recipes with baking soda (which is alkaline), and Dutch cocoa is used in recipes with baking powder (which is acidic).
Ground Chocolateaka Powdered Chocolate
Not to be confused with cocoa powder, this is regular eating chocolate that's been ground to make a powder. It is generally used for making drinks, and should not be used in place of unsweetened cocoa powder in recipes.
Baking Chocolateaka Baker's chocolate (Baker's is also a brand name)
What is up with baking chocolate? Does it have sugar added or not? ARRRRG! Well, here's the thing: although the FDA sets the guidelines for what types of chocolate can be labeled "unsweetened, bittersweet, semisweet, milk, and white," they don't specify what can be labeled baking chocolate.
You can find all of the following types of chocolate labeled "baking chocolate":
1) unsweetened chocolate2) bittersweet baking chocolate (chocolate liquor + sugar, but no cocoa butter added)3) bittersweet chocolate (chocolate liquor + sugar + cocoa butter) Most chefs wouldn't consider this true baking chocolate because of the added cocoa butter, though you might find it labeled as such.4) baking-resistant chocolate, i.e. chocolate chips (bittersweet chocolate with less cocoa butter added, so that it won't melt easily)
So how do you know which to use? Hopefully your recipe specifies! In general, recipes will usually specify at least "unsweetened baking chocolate (#1 above)" or "bittersweet baking chocolate (#2 above)." Whether there's cocoa butter added or not probably isn't going to make or break your recipe.
One thing you should avoid, though, is using chocolate chips in place of other types of chocolate when the recipe calls for melting. The low cocoa butter content makes chips bad for melting.Chocolate Coatingaka Compound Chocolate Coating, Summer Coating, Chocolate Flavored Coating
These are vegetable fat-based coatings that contain sugar and some amount cocoa powder, chocolate liquor and/or cocoa butter for flavor. They are not true chocolate. The advantage to using them is that they typically do not "bloom" in high heat. They are best used in making chocolate decorations.
Couvertureaka Coating Chocolate
Chocolate coating or coating chocolate? Aaaaaaah! Couverture is the good stuff - usually some type of dark chocolate with extra cocoa butter added to make it melt nicely for enrobing (drizzling onto the outside of a chocolate confection). Because the high cocoa butter content (roughly 35-45%) makes it melt well, it is ideal for chocolate fountains, and usually no oil need be added.
Giandujaaka Gianduia, pronounced zhahn-DOO-yuh
Chocolate made with toasted hazelnuts ground into powder. It still has a smooth, chocolatey texture, but has the wonderful flavor of hazelnuts. An Italian or Swiss invention, depending on whom you believe. Who cares? It's yummy.
Single Bean Chocolateaka Origin Chocolate, Single Origin, Estate Chocolate, Grand Cru, Single Cru
In general, these types of chocolate that are made from a single type of bean that's grown in a specific region, or even a specific plantation. But not always. We might be talking about a bunch of types of beans all grown on the same plantation. Or a single bean from a bunch of different plantations in the same geographic region. Or heck, a blend of the finest of the same exact type of bean from locations around the globe. It's hard to say.
The point is the manufacturer is carefully selecting the beans to create a unique flavor, but some people argue this is a gimmick. After all, Hershey's selects its beans to create a unique flavor too! In general, however, these types of chocolate are of high quality.
Cocoa Butter
When chocolate liquor is pressed to expel the fat and make cocoa powder, the fat expelled is cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is added to chocolate liquor to make the type of chocolate we enjoy eating; it gives chocolate that smooth, melt-in-your-mouth texture we love.
Cocoa butter is also used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Because it melts at about 97° F, it smoothes into the skin nicely. Also, it has healing properties and is resistant to spoilage.
Chocolatesaka Chocolate Candies, Truffles, Creams, Pralines, etc.
When people speak of "chocolates" in the plural, they are typically referring to chocolate candies, like truffles, chocolate creams, chocolate-covered nuts, and that sort of thing. "Chocolates" are candies made from other types of chocolate.
Chocolate Extract
Chocolate extract is a good way to add chocolate flavor to your cooking without adding fat, but the flavor can be a bit strong. It is made like vanilla extract; cacao beans are soaked in alcohol.
Chocolate Oil
Alas, there is no such thing as a chocolate oil. If you see chocolate oil, it's most likely a chocolate perfume oil, entirely manmade, and not for cooking.
This is the cacao bean, minus the shell, and nothing else. You can buy cacao raw or roasted. Whole cacao is the whole bean, cacao nibs are crunched up pieces of bean, and ground cacao is powdered. Really the healthiest form of chocolate there is, cacao can sometimes be quite bitter.
Chocolate Liquor
This is the basis of all types of chocolate, formed by grinding cacao nibs into a smooth, liquid paste. Nothing is added, and it is not alcoholic. It naturally contains about 53% cocoa butter (fat).
Unsweetened Chocolateaka Chocolate, Baking Chocolate, Pure Chocolate, Bitter Chocolate
Chocolate liquor that has been allowed to cool and harden. It is used for baking and to make other types of chocolate. Many bakers prefer this type of chocolate for baking because they have more control over the flavor and sweetness.
Bittersweet Chocolateaka Semisweet Chocolate, Dark Chocolate
Contains at least 35% chocolate liquor, plus cocoa butter and sugar in varying amounts. There is no technical difference between bittersweet and semisweet types of chocolate, and they are often referred to as "dark." Note that there is such a thing as "bittersweet (or semisweet) baking chocolate," which is sweetened cocoa liquor without the added cocoa butter.
Sweet Chocolate
Contains at least 15% chocolate liquor, plus cocoa butter and sugar in varying amounts. Some people mistakenly refer to this as "bittersweet."
Milk Chocolate
Contains at least 10% chocolate liquor, plus cocoa butter and sugar in varying amounts, and at least 12% milk (milk, cream, milk powder, etc).
White Chocolate
White chocolate is not technically one of the types of chocolate because it does not contain any chocolate liquor. It must contain at least 20% cocoa butter and 14% milk, plus sugar in varying amounts.
Cocoaaka Cocoa Powder, Unsweetened Cocoa Powder, Unsweetened Cocoa
Is made by slamming chocolate liquor with a hydraulic press to expel the fat, i.e. the cocoa butter. What's left is allowed to harden, and then it is crushed into a powder. There is roughly 10-20% fat remaining in the powder. Cocoa powder is often used in low fat cooking because it retains the chocolate flavor but has much of the fat removed.
"Dutched" cocoa is formed by washing cocoa powder with an alkali solution of potassium carbonate. This darkens the color and neutralizes the acidity of the powder. Very alkalized cocoa is called black cocoa, which gives Oreos their unique look.
How do you know which to use in a recipe? Most American recipes use plain cocoa powder - good ol' Hershey's is plain cocoa. If a recipe needs Dutch cocoa, it will usually specify it. In general, regular cocoa is used in recipes with baking soda (which is alkaline), and Dutch cocoa is used in recipes with baking powder (which is acidic).
Ground Chocolateaka Powdered Chocolate
Not to be confused with cocoa powder, this is regular eating chocolate that's been ground to make a powder. It is generally used for making drinks, and should not be used in place of unsweetened cocoa powder in recipes.
Baking Chocolateaka Baker's chocolate (Baker's is also a brand name)
What is up with baking chocolate? Does it have sugar added or not? ARRRRG! Well, here's the thing: although the FDA sets the guidelines for what types of chocolate can be labeled "unsweetened, bittersweet, semisweet, milk, and white," they don't specify what can be labeled baking chocolate.
You can find all of the following types of chocolate labeled "baking chocolate":
1) unsweetened chocolate2) bittersweet baking chocolate (chocolate liquor + sugar, but no cocoa butter added)3) bittersweet chocolate (chocolate liquor + sugar + cocoa butter) Most chefs wouldn't consider this true baking chocolate because of the added cocoa butter, though you might find it labeled as such.4) baking-resistant chocolate, i.e. chocolate chips (bittersweet chocolate with less cocoa butter added, so that it won't melt easily)
So how do you know which to use? Hopefully your recipe specifies! In general, recipes will usually specify at least "unsweetened baking chocolate (#1 above)" or "bittersweet baking chocolate (#2 above)." Whether there's cocoa butter added or not probably isn't going to make or break your recipe.
One thing you should avoid, though, is using chocolate chips in place of other types of chocolate when the recipe calls for melting. The low cocoa butter content makes chips bad for melting.Chocolate Coatingaka Compound Chocolate Coating, Summer Coating, Chocolate Flavored Coating
These are vegetable fat-based coatings that contain sugar and some amount cocoa powder, chocolate liquor and/or cocoa butter for flavor. They are not true chocolate. The advantage to using them is that they typically do not "bloom" in high heat. They are best used in making chocolate decorations.
Couvertureaka Coating Chocolate
Chocolate coating or coating chocolate? Aaaaaaah! Couverture is the good stuff - usually some type of dark chocolate with extra cocoa butter added to make it melt nicely for enrobing (drizzling onto the outside of a chocolate confection). Because the high cocoa butter content (roughly 35-45%) makes it melt well, it is ideal for chocolate fountains, and usually no oil need be added.
Giandujaaka Gianduia, pronounced zhahn-DOO-yuh
Chocolate made with toasted hazelnuts ground into powder. It still has a smooth, chocolatey texture, but has the wonderful flavor of hazelnuts. An Italian or Swiss invention, depending on whom you believe. Who cares? It's yummy.
Single Bean Chocolateaka Origin Chocolate, Single Origin, Estate Chocolate, Grand Cru, Single Cru
In general, these types of chocolate that are made from a single type of bean that's grown in a specific region, or even a specific plantation. But not always. We might be talking about a bunch of types of beans all grown on the same plantation. Or a single bean from a bunch of different plantations in the same geographic region. Or heck, a blend of the finest of the same exact type of bean from locations around the globe. It's hard to say.
The point is the manufacturer is carefully selecting the beans to create a unique flavor, but some people argue this is a gimmick. After all, Hershey's selects its beans to create a unique flavor too! In general, however, these types of chocolate are of high quality.
Cocoa Butter
When chocolate liquor is pressed to expel the fat and make cocoa powder, the fat expelled is cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is added to chocolate liquor to make the type of chocolate we enjoy eating; it gives chocolate that smooth, melt-in-your-mouth texture we love.
Cocoa butter is also used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Because it melts at about 97° F, it smoothes into the skin nicely. Also, it has healing properties and is resistant to spoilage.
Chocolatesaka Chocolate Candies, Truffles, Creams, Pralines, etc.
When people speak of "chocolates" in the plural, they are typically referring to chocolate candies, like truffles, chocolate creams, chocolate-covered nuts, and that sort of thing. "Chocolates" are candies made from other types of chocolate.
Chocolate Extract
Chocolate extract is a good way to add chocolate flavor to your cooking without adding fat, but the flavor can be a bit strong. It is made like vanilla extract; cacao beans are soaked in alcohol.
Chocolate Oil
Alas, there is no such thing as a chocolate oil. If you see chocolate oil, it's most likely a chocolate perfume oil, entirely manmade, and not for cooking.
EGGS... good for health
Energy value of eggs
A medium egg has an energy value of 78 kilocalories (324 kilojoules) and the consumption of one egg daily would contribute only around 3% of the average energy requirement of an adult man; 4% for an adult woman.
With their significant protein, vitamin and mineral content and relatively low saturated fat content, eggs are a valuable component in a healthy diet.
Protein
Eggs are an excellent source of protein. Egg protein is of high biological value as it contains all the essential amino acids needed by the human body. Eggs therefore complement other food proteins of lower biological value by providing the amino acids that are in short supply in those foods. 12.5% of the weight of the egg is protein and it is found in both the yolk and the albumen. Although protein is more concentrated around the yolk, there is in fact more protein in the albumen.
On the evaluation scale most commonly used for assessing protein, egg is at the highest point, 100, and is used as the reference standard against which all other foods are assessed.
Vitamins
Eggs contain most of the recognised vitamins with the exception of vitamin C. The egg is a good source of all the B vitamins, plus the fat-soluble vitamin A. It also provides useful amounts of vitamin D, as well as some vitamin E.
Minerals
Eggs contain most of the minerals that the human body requires for health. In particular eggs are an excellent source of iodine, required to make the thyroid hormone, and phosphorus, required for bone health. The egg provides significant amounts of zinc, important for wound healing, growth and fighting infection; selenium, an important antioxidant; and calcium, needed for bone and growth structure and nervous function. Eggs also contain significant amounts of iron, the vital ingredient of red blood cells, but the availability of this iron to the body is uncertain.
Carbohydrate and dietary fibreEggs contain only traces of carbohydrate and no dietary fibre.
Fat
11.2% of the egg content is fat. The fat of an egg is found almost entirely in the yolk; there is less than 0.05% in the albumen.
Approximately 17% of an egg’s fatty acids are polyunsaturated, 44% monounsaturated and only 32% saturated.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol and Lecithin are fat-like substances and are essential to the structure and function of all cells in the body. Cholesterol helps to maintain the flexibility and permeability of cell membranes and is also a raw material for the fatty lubricants that help to keep the skin supple. Cholesterol is essential for the production of sex hormones, cortisol, vitamin D and bile salts.
Lecithin is involved in general lipid transportation in the blood and in the metabolism of cholesterol.
A medium egg has an energy value of 78 kilocalories (324 kilojoules) and the consumption of one egg daily would contribute only around 3% of the average energy requirement of an adult man; 4% for an adult woman.
With their significant protein, vitamin and mineral content and relatively low saturated fat content, eggs are a valuable component in a healthy diet.
Protein
Eggs are an excellent source of protein. Egg protein is of high biological value as it contains all the essential amino acids needed by the human body. Eggs therefore complement other food proteins of lower biological value by providing the amino acids that are in short supply in those foods. 12.5% of the weight of the egg is protein and it is found in both the yolk and the albumen. Although protein is more concentrated around the yolk, there is in fact more protein in the albumen.
On the evaluation scale most commonly used for assessing protein, egg is at the highest point, 100, and is used as the reference standard against which all other foods are assessed.
Vitamins
Eggs contain most of the recognised vitamins with the exception of vitamin C. The egg is a good source of all the B vitamins, plus the fat-soluble vitamin A. It also provides useful amounts of vitamin D, as well as some vitamin E.
Minerals
Eggs contain most of the minerals that the human body requires for health. In particular eggs are an excellent source of iodine, required to make the thyroid hormone, and phosphorus, required for bone health. The egg provides significant amounts of zinc, important for wound healing, growth and fighting infection; selenium, an important antioxidant; and calcium, needed for bone and growth structure and nervous function. Eggs also contain significant amounts of iron, the vital ingredient of red blood cells, but the availability of this iron to the body is uncertain.
Carbohydrate and dietary fibreEggs contain only traces of carbohydrate and no dietary fibre.
Fat
11.2% of the egg content is fat. The fat of an egg is found almost entirely in the yolk; there is less than 0.05% in the albumen.
Approximately 17% of an egg’s fatty acids are polyunsaturated, 44% monounsaturated and only 32% saturated.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol and Lecithin are fat-like substances and are essential to the structure and function of all cells in the body. Cholesterol helps to maintain the flexibility and permeability of cell membranes and is also a raw material for the fatty lubricants that help to keep the skin supple. Cholesterol is essential for the production of sex hormones, cortisol, vitamin D and bile salts.
Lecithin is involved in general lipid transportation in the blood and in the metabolism of cholesterol.
Types of Sugar
- Barbados sugar – See raw sugar and muscovado sugar.
- brown sugar – It is made up of sugar crystals coated with varying amounts of molasses to obtain dark or light brown sugar. This lends a slightly grainy, moist texture.
- castor/caster sugar – Spelled both "caster" and "castor." The spelling castor sugar used to be the prevailing one, but caster sugar seems to be more usual now, perhaps because it is used by some sugar manufacturers on their packaging. See superfine sugar. UK castor/caster sugar is very finely granulated sugar (finer than U.S. granulated sugar) which allows it to dissolve almost instantly. In the United States, superfine sugar or the new Baker's sugar may be substituted. It is called "berry sugar" in British Columbia.
- coarse sugar – Also known as pearl or decorating sugar. It is shaped into small pearl-like balls that are several times as big as granulated sugar crystals.
- confectioners’ sugar – See powdered sugar.
- date sugar – Date sugar is more a food than a sweetener. It is ground up from dehydrated dates, is high in fiber. Its use is limited by price and the fact it does not dissolve when added to liquids.
- demerara sugar – See raw sugar.
- granulated sugar – Also called table sugar or white sugar. It is the most common form of sugar and the type most frequently called for in recipes. Its main distinguishing characteristics are a paper-white color and fine crystals.
- sugar cubes – They are made from moist granulated sugar that is pressed into molds and then dried.
- invert sugar - Invert sugar is basically used as a sweetener, like artificial sugar substitutes or sweeteners. The term invert comes from the method used for measuring sugar syrups. Invert sugar is a liquid carbohydrate sweetener in which all or a portion of the sucrose present has been inverted: the sucrose molecule is split and converted to a mixture of glucose and fructose. Invert sugars help baked goods retain moisture and prolong shelf-life. Candy manufacturers use invert sugar to control graining. It is sweeter than sucrose and is used in baked goods to prevent food shrinkage.
Honey, corn syrup, golden syrup, and glucose are invert sugars. It takes half as much of it to sweeten as much as regular sugar. DO NOT substitute corn syrup in a recipe, a liquid sugar, for a crystalline or dry one, such as table sugar. You can't substitute on for the other, as they each have distinctive properties and the recipe may not bake the same way that you intended. - Muscovado sugar – Also called Barbados sugar or moist sugar. Muscovado sugar, a British specialty brown sugar, is very dark brown and has a particularly strong molasses flavor. The crystals are slightly coarser and stickier in texture than regular brown sugar. Light and dark brown muscovado sugars contain molasses; the darker the color is, the more molasses and therefore the stronger the flavor.
- powdered sugar – Also called confectioners’ sugar. In Britain it is called icing sugar and in France sucre glace. It is granulated sugar ground to a powder, sifted, and a small amount (3%) cornstarch has been added to prevent caking. The fineness to which the granulated sugar is ground determines the family “X: factor: The “X: designations are derived from the mesh sizes of the screens used to separate powdered sugar into various sizes. Thus, 4X would have a larger particle size, whereas 10X would have a smaller particle size.14 X is finer than 12X, and so on down through 10X, 8X, 6X, and 4X (the coarsest powdered sugar). Confectioners or powdered sugar, available at supermarkets, is usually 10X. Always sift it before using.
- raw sugar – It is essentially the product at the point before the molasses is removed (what’s left after sugarcane has been processed and refined). Popular types of raw sugar include demerara sugar from Guyana and Barbados sugar, a moist, fine textured sugar. Turbinado sugar is raw sugar that has been steam cleaned to remove contaminates., leaving a llight molasses flavored, tan colored sugar.
- superfine sugar – Sometimes called bar sugar and known as castor or caster sugar in Britain, and berry sugar in British Columbia.. It is similar to granulated sugar except that it has very tiny crystals. Since it dissolves quickly and completely, leaving no grainy texture, it’s the perfect choice for caramel, meringues, drinks, and fine-textured cakes.
- Turbinado sugar – See raw sugar.
Types of Flour
What is Flour?
- Flour that is used in baking comes mainly from wheat, although it can be milled from corn, rice, nuts, legumes, and some fruits and vegetables. The type of flour of flour used is vital at getting the product right. Different types of flour are suited to different items and all flours are different you cannot switch from one type to another without consequences that could ruin the recipe.
- Flour is obtained by grinding grain, most commonly of wheat but also from rye, buckwheat, barley, potato, corn etc.
- The wheat kernel or 'berry 'consists of three parts: bran r covering the germ; and endosperm.
- During milling, the three parts are separated and recombined accordingly to achieve different types of flour.
- Wheat varieties are typically known as 'White' or Brown if they have high gluten content, and soft or weak flour if gluten content is low. Hard flour, or "bread" flour, is high in gluten and so forms a certain toughness which holds its shape well once baked. Soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and so results in a finer texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour.
- All-purpose flour is a blended wheat flour with an intermediate gluten level which is marketed as an acceptable compromise for most household baking needs.
In terms of the parts of the grain (the grass seed) used in flour -- the endosperm or starchy part, the germ or protein part, and the bran or fiber part -- there are three general types of flour. - White flour is made from the endosperm only. Whole grain flour is made from the entire grain including bran, endosperm, and germ. A germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran.
- Whole-wheat flour is wholegrain wheat flour.
- Bleached flour is flour that was subjected to flour bleaching agents in order to whiten it (freshly milled flour is yellowish) and give it more gluten-producing potential. Similar effect can be achieved by letting the flour slowly oxidize with oxygen in the air ("natural aging"), however this process is too slow to be commercially viable. Oxidizing agents are therefore employed, most commonly organic peroxides like acetone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide, nitrogen dioxide, or chlorine.
- Bromated flour is flour with a maturing agent added. The agent's role is to help with developing gluten, a role similar to the flour bleaching agents. Bromate is usually used. Other choices are phosphates, ascorbic acid, and malted barley.
- Cake flour is a finely milled flour made from soft wheat. It has very low gluten content, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies. Higher gluten content of other flours would make the cakes tough.
- Graham flour is a special type of whole wheat flour. The endosperm is finely ground, as in white flour, while the bran and germ are coarsely ground. Graham flour is uncommon outside of the USA. It is the basis of true graham crackers. Many graham crackers on the market are actually imitation grahams because they do not contain graham flour or even whole-wheat flour.
- Pastry flour (also called cookie flour or cracker flour) is flour with gluten content slightly higher than cake flour, but lower than all-purpose flour. It is suitable for fine, light-textured pastries.
- Self-rising or self-raising flour is "white" wheat flour that is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. It was invented by Henry Jones. Typical ratios are:U.S. customary: one cup flour 1 to 1 1/2 teaspoon baking powder a pinch to 1/2 teaspoon salt Metric: 100 g flour 3 g baking powder 1 g or less salt
- Durum flour is a flour made of durum wheat. It has the highest protein content, and it is an important component of nearly all noodles and pastas.
Sunday, February 22, 2009
Basics of Cake Making
Certain Rules that has to be followed while making a cake:
- Always stick to the recipe.
- Never ever even think of altering a recipe, unless and until you are really good in making and baking and you know what would happen if you alter any ingredient.
- Omission basic ingredients is a crime but you can always change or omit small ingredients.
Always use right temperatures, if recipes require preheating always do it. - If you don’t know how accurate your stove is, or you have an older oven that hasn’t been serviced in many years, buy an oven thermometer to make sure that the oven is really the right temperature before putting the cake in. Sometimes, oven temperature readings can be off by as much as 75 degrees and that can mean the difference between a great cake and a really hard brick....so either you eat a cake or built a dog house.
- Make sure to dust baking tin with butter and flour.
- Make sure you know the method to make a cake.
- Last but not the least " There are no short cuts in making a cake"'.
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