WHAT IS ARTISAN BREAD?
Artisan bread has many definitions. Most of the possible definitions include
expressions like homemade, handmade, made in small quantities, lacking
in preservatives, and using traditional techniques. But for every definition, it
is possible to find exceptions. Clearly, those terms don’t completely define
what we understand to be artisan breads or separate them from conventional
breads. After all, every bread formula in this book can be made by hand in
small quantities, yet many of them would not be considered artisan. At the
same time, there are commercial bakeries that use machines to transform
thousands of pounds of flour a day into high-quality breads that nearly anyone
would call artisan, or that at least have all the eating qualities of artisan breads.
Furthermore, now that supermarket chains are selling mass-produced loaves
with artisan on the label, the word is harder than ever to define, if not
impossible.
The dictionary defines an artisan as a skilled manual worker, a
craftsperson. An artisan bread, then, is one made by hand by a skilled baker.
This is a good start, but it is not very precise. Another definition sometimes
given is that artisan breads are made using traditional methods. This is also
important, but we still have to determine what is meant by traditional
methods.We may not be able to come up with a definition of artisan bread that
satisfies everyone, but we can list the characteristics that, according to many
bakers, should be present.
Handmade This is the characteristic most closely related to the
dictionary definition of artisan. Does this mean that machinery cannot be
used at all? A home baker can make bread from start to finish without
machinery,but clearly it would be difficult for a bakery to produce enough
bread to be commercially viable without even using a mixer.Some form of
machinery is used in virtually every baking operation. Nevertheless, hand
work plays an important role in artisan production, and the manual skill
and judgment of the artisan baker are essential. By necessity, then, artisan
bread production is usually small-scale, not high-volume. Making artisan
bread is not an automatic or purely mechanical process.
Use of pre-ferments and sourdough starters A pre-ferment is a
fermented dough or batter that is used to provide leavening for a larger
batch of dough. A sourdough starter is similar to a yeast preferment,
except it uses wild yeast instead of commercial yeast. No chemical additives or preservatives The classic artisan bread is a
crisp-crusted bread that contains nothing but flour,water, and salt, and it is
leavened either by wild yeast (sourdough) or commercial yeast. Other
ingredients may be added for some specialty breads, including dough
ingredients such as milk,eggs,and butter,and add-ins such as herbs,spices,
nuts, dried fruit, and olives. But all ingredients should be recognizable by
the consumer as familiar food items.
Traditional production methods. Bread has been made for centuries
without the use of any machinery except, of course, ovens, and until
recently those ovens were wood-fired. Today’s artisan bakers try to
duplicate as much as possible these traditional methods. As already noted,
at least part of the production should be by hand, even if mixers are used
to make the dough. Bakers also seek out flours similar to those used for
old-fashioned European breads, most notably flours with slightly lower
protein content and higher ash . Also, because the fermentation
process is so important for flavor, doughs are usually fermented for longer
times at lower temperatures, often without the use of proof boxes.Hearth
ovens or deck ovens are invariably used, and some bakeries have even
installed wood-fired hearth ovens for their breads.
FLOUR
As any chef knows, choosing high-quality ingredients is an important part of
cooking the finest dishes. Unlike the cook in the kitchen, however, the bread
baker has far fewer ingredients to worry about. Flour, of course, is the baker’s
main ingredient, so the quality of flour in the bakeshop affects nearly all the
baker’s products, and especially bread.
One of the great inspirations for bread bakers today is the late Lionel
Poilâne, whose famous breads were shipped around the world. Poilâne was
particular about his selection of flours, insisting on using only organically
grown wheat that conformed to his exacting specifications.Today’s artisan
bakers, in North America as well as Europe, are following his lead and
seeking out the best organic flours, often made from wheat grown in small
quantities.
As we have said, artisan bread bakers in North America often try to
replicate the traditional breads of France and other European countries, so
they look for flour that is similar to European flours.This means, first of all,
flour with a protein content of around 11.5% rather than the 12.5% common
to North American bread flours.
Keep in mind that lower protein content means a lower absorption ratio. This means that if you are substituting a lower-protein flour in a
formula in which you have always used a higher-protein patent flour,you must
use less liquid in order to get the same dough consistency. Whenever you
change flours, it is best to test a small batch to see how the new flour
performs.
Second, while North American straight flours are about 72% extraction, artisan breads are often made with higher-extraction flour,
anywhere from 77 to 90%.This means the flour is darker and has a higher ash
content, resulting in fuller flavor. In addition, the higher mineral content is
beneficial to the long, slow fermentations favored for artisan breads. If it is not
possible to find such flours, they can be approximated in two ways.The easier
way is to mix a little whole wheat flour with the white flour. A more laborious
way, but one that gives a closer approximation to a high-extraction flour, is to
sift whole wheat flour through a fine sieve to remove the coarse flakes of
bran.You can save the bran for another use.
PRE-FERMENTS AND
SOURDOUGH STARTERS
Pre-ferments give the fermentation a strong
head start, and they contribute to flavor by extending the fermentation period.
In addition, the use of pre-ferments allows the baker to reduce or eliminate the
amount of commercial yeast used. Third, short-fermentation straight doughs
may be difficult to handle, requiring the use of dough conditioners and other
additives. Pre-ferments, on the other hand, naturally improve the dough
texture, making it easier to work without resorting to additives.
There are two basic types of pre-ferments: yeast pre-ferments, sometimes
called yeast starters, and sourdough pre-ferments, usually called sourdough
starters or natural starters.
Sourdough starters are similar to yeast pre-ferments except that they are
made with wild yeasts. As a result, they are handled somewhat differently.
These starters are “sour”because of the acidity created in the dough during the
long fermentation.This acidity affects not only the flavor of the bread but also
the texture.The starches and proteins are modified by the acids, resulting in a
moister crumb and better keeping qualities.
YEAST PRE-FERMENTS
Many traditional terms are used for various types of pre-ferments.
Unfortunately, the terminology is not used consistently. Some of the terms are
introduced here,but you may find that some bakers use them in different ways.
As artisan breads become more common, these terms will probably become
more standardized. Even the word sponge is used in different ways. As used by
this book and by many bakers, a sponge is any yeast pre-ferment. Other bakers
use the word sponge only for a thin, batterlike pre-ferment.
Unlike sourdoughs,which can last indefinitely,yeast starters have a limited
life and are best made fresh for each new batch of dough.Overfermented yeast
pre-ferments should be discarded because a dough made from them will not
handle well, and the bread will have undesirable flavors.
The most important types of pre-ferments are the following:
Poolish
This type of starter is said to have originated in Poland, and the word
poolish comes from “Polish.”A poolish (or poolisch) is a thin yeast starter
made with equal parts flour and water (by weight),plus commercial yeast.
In other words, a formula for poolish is 100% flour, 100% water, and
varying percentages of yeast, depending on the desired speed of
fermentation.
To contribute maximum flavor, a poolish is made with only a small
quantity of yeast and given a long fermentation at room temperature. The
poolish bubbles up and increases in volume, and when it is at its peak, it
starts to fall back slightly and the top surface appears wrinkled. A poolish
given a slow fermentation may hold its peak quality for several hours.After
this period, the acidity will increase and the quality will deteriorate.
If a shorter fermentation is needed, use more yeast. In this case,
however, the starter will be at its peak of quality for a shorter time before
it starts to deteriorate. See the table above for yeast quantities and fermentation
times.
Biga
Biga is the Italian term for pre-ferment. Although the word can, in theory,
refer to a starter of any consistency, it is usually used for stiff pre-ferments.
Because stiffer doughs ferment more slowly than wet ones, a biga is
generally made with more yeast. Use about 2 times the quantity of yeast as
in a poolish to get the same fermentation time.
A typical biga contains 100% flour, 50 to 60% water, and about 1 to
1.5% fresh yeast.
Levain-levure
This is the general French term for yeast pre-ferment. It is usually stiff like
a biga, but the term is sometimes used for thin pre-ferments like the
poolish as well. The word levure means “yeast.” Do not confuse levainlevure
with the word levain alone. Levain means sourdough starter, and
pain au levain means sourdough bread.
Scrap dough
Scrap dough is simply a piece of fermented bread dough saved from a
previous batch. It is sometimes known as pâte fermentée (pot fer mawn
tay), meaning “fermented dough.” Saving a piece of fermented dough,
preferably in the retarder so it doesn’t overferment, is an easy and
common way to get the benefits of using a pre-ferment without having to
make one separately. Of course, it is also possible to make a batch of bread
dough just to use as a pre-ferment.
Because scrap dough is actually bread dough, it differs from other
ferments in that it contains salt as well as flour, water, and yeast.The salt
slows the fermentation.To balance the salt, a scrap dough contains more
yeast than the other types of pre-ferments we have discussed.
When pure pre-ferments like the poolish and biga are used in bread, they
are usually the only source of leavening. On the other hand, scrap dough is
usually used in smaller quantities—that is, as a smaller proportion of the
finished bread dough—and may not be strong enough to ferment the bread on
its own.Yeast may be added in addition to the scrap dough when the final
Quantity of fresh
yeast (percent
of flour used
in poolish)
3.5% 1.4% 2 hours
2% 0.8% 4 hours
1% 0.4% 8 hours
0.5% 0.2% 12–16 hours
Yeast Quantities and Approximate
Poolish Fermentation Times
Quantity of dry
yeast (percent
of flour used in
poolish)
Approximate
fermentation time at
room temperature
(65°–68°F or 18°–20°F)
bread dough is mixed. In other words, such a bread dough is a straight dough
to which scrap dough is added. This method, in which both a preferment
and a fresh addition of yeast are used to provide leavening, is
sometimes called mixed fermentation.
SOURDOUGH STARTERS
For purposes of this discussion,we define a sourdough as a dough leavened by
a sourdough starter. A sourdough starter is a dough or batter that contains
wild yeasts and bacteria,that has a noticeable acidity as a result of fermentation
by these organisms, and that is used to leaven other doughs.
Sourdough starter is also called a natural sour or natural starter. Before
commercially prepared yeast was available, bread was started by mixing flour
and water and letting this mixture stand until wild yeasts began to ferment it.
This starter was then used to leaven bread. A portion of the starter was saved,
mixed with more flour and water, and set aside to leaven the next day’s bread.
This process is still used today.
There are two important points to notice in these definitions: the
presence of wild yeasts, not commercial yeasts, and the importance of bacteria.
Wild Yeasts
The wild yeasts in sourdough starters are not the same organisms as
commercial yeasts.Consequently, they act somewhat differently. Also, different
wild yeasts are found in different regions and environments. For example, the
wild yeast that gives San Francisco sourdough its unique flavor is not the same
as wild yeasts found in other parts of the world. If a starter is brought from one
region to another, the sour may gradually change character because the yeasts
in the new location apparently take over.
Wild yeasts can tolerate more acidity than commercial yeasts. If a dough
made with commercial yeast becomes too sour or acidic, the yeast is likely to
die, and the resulting bread will have an off taste.Wild yeasts used in starters
can tolerate and grow in higher levels of acidity.
Although you can approximate sourdough breads using yeast preferments,
the complex flavor and moist texture or crumb of a true sourdough
can be made only with a true natural starter containing wild yeasts.
Bacterial Fermentation
The second important point is that sourdough starters contain bacteria as well
as yeast. The most important of these bacteria belong to a group called
Lactobacilli (singular form: Lactobacillus). Like the yeast, these bacteria
ferment some of the sugars in the dough and create carbon dioxide gas. In
addition, they create acids.These acids give sourdough its sourness. As in the
case of wild yeasts, the exact strains of bacteria present vary from starter to
starter, so each starter has unique characteristics.
Two kinds of acids are created by the bacteria: lactic acid and acetic acid.
Lactic acid is a weak or mild acid. Acetic acid, which is the acid in vinegar, is a
strong acid. Getting a good balance of these two acids is an important goal of
the baker. The balance of these two acids gives the bread its characteristic
sourdough flavor.Too much acetic acid in the dough makes the bread taste
harsh and vinegary. Lactic acid is necessary to balance the flavor, but if the
dough contains only lactic acid and little or no acetic acid, the bread has little
sourdough flavor.
The ways in which the baker maintains the starter and controls the
fermentation process affect the formation of these two acids.
Starting and Maintaining Natural Starters
As we have said, the microorganisms (yeasts and bacteria) that create
sourdough starters differ from place to place. In addition, different bakers look
for different results in their sourdough breads. Thus, the procedures for
creating, maintaining, and using natural starters vary considerably.We begin
this section with a general explanation of the important factors that should be
considered.We then present a general procedure for making a natural starter.
Please keep in mind that, until your starter is well established and strong and
you have baked breads with consistent quality with this starter, your
procedures will be somewhat experimental.
Source of Microorganisms
As you have read, if a flour-and-water dough or batter is left to stand long
enough, sooner or later it is likely to start fermenting, either from yeasts and
bacteria in the air and environment or from yeasts and bacteria that were
already present in the flour. Unfortunately, however, just letting a dough stand
and hoping for the best is not the ideal way to make a batch of bread.To create
a starter, the baker usually looks for a more reliable source of fermentation.
Wild yeasts are naturally present on the surface of fruits and on the surface
of whole grains, and these are the most used sources for creating natural sours.
Mixing whole-grain rye flour into a batter or dough with water and letting it
stand until it ferments is one of the best and most reliable ways of creating a
starter.This initial fermentation usually takes at least two or three days.Rye is a
good environment for wild yeasts, and starters begun with rye are more likely
to be successful than starters begun with wheat flour only. Whole-grain rye
generally contains more of these organisms, but if it is not available, use the
darkest rye you can find. Light rye is made from the interior of the grain and
contains fewer of these organisms.
Another popular way to create a sour is to mix a batter or loose dough
with regular bread flour (wheat) and bury pieces of fruit (grapes are often
used) or vegetable in it until it begins to ferment.Then remove the fruit. Some
bakers feel this method is not as good as using rye because grain is the natural
environment for the yeasts on rye, whereas the yeasts on fruit are not as
adapted for growing in grain or flour.
Formulas for both types of starter are included in the next chapter. Of
course, results will vary depending on your location.
Refreshing the Starter
After the initial fermentation has begun,the starter must be refreshed regularly
so the yeasts and bacteria are nourished and will multiply until they are strong
enough to ferment a bread dough. Depending on the environment and other
factors, this can take several weeks.The yeasts and bacteria must regularly be
supplied with fresh food, in the form of wheat flour, so they can grow.The
basic procedure is to combine a portion of the fermenting starter with
additional flour and water in the correct ratio (see next section) and again
letting the mixture ferment.
You can imagine that if you continually add more flour and water to a
starter, soon you will have more starter than you can use. For this reason, part
of the starter is discarded each time it is refreshed.
Because every starter is different, it is impossible to predict how much
time is needed between refreshments. Generally, it may take two days or mor
The following is only a general procedure and is subject to many variations, as
described in the above text.
1. Combine the ingredients for the first stage as directed in the formula. Most starters fall
into two groups.
• Mix together whole rye flour and water (a).
• Or mix together bread flour and water. Add the selected fresh fruit or vegetable.
2. Cover the starter and let stand at room temperature until it begins to ferment. Continue
to let ferment until it bubbles up, increases in volume, and then falls back (b). This will
probably take two or three days.
3. Refresh the starter. Mix together bread flour, water, and all or some of the starter from
step 1. Use the quantities or ratios in your formula, or use the following guidelines:
• A typical stiff starter, or levain, may use the following ratio:
Flour 100%
Water 50–60%
Fermented starter 67%
• A typical thin starter, or barm, may use the following ratio:
Flour 100%
Water 100%
Fermented starter 200%
4. Cover and let stand at room temperature until well fermented. It should be sticky and
full of bubbles, and it should have increased in volume at least 50% (c). This may take
about two days, depending on the room temperature.
5. Repeat the refreshment as in step 3.
6. Continue to ferment and refresh as in steps 4 and 5. As the starter becomes stronger and
more active, the fermentation will eventually take only one day or less. Once the starter
has reached this level of activity, it is ready to use (d). Total time varies greatly, but will
average about two weeks.
7. After the starter is fully developed, it can be refrigerated to slow its activity and
increase the time between refreshments. Do not refrigerate a starter unless it has been
refreshed recently, or else the yeast may use up its food. Bring a refrigerated starter to
room temperature before using it to make bread.
8. The developed starter may be used as is in formulas, or it may be used as a storage
starter. This means it is a source of leavening that the baker keeps and maintains in
storage. To use this storage starter, the baker removes a quantity of it as needed and
refreshes this portion of it with the amounts of flour and water specified in an individual
bread formula. This starter is then called an intermediate starter. For best results,
always use either a refreshed starter or an intermediate starter in a bread formula. A
storage starter taken from the refrigerator may not be active enough to
provide the best fermentation.
General Procedure for Making a Sourdough Starter
a.
b.
c.
d.
Procedure
at the beginning of the process, but as the yeasts and bacteria multiply, the
starter gets stronger and faster-acting.A developed starter is usually refreshed
every day or even more often if the temperature is warm.
Flour-Water Ratio in the Starter
Some sourdough starters are stiff doughs, similar to the type of pre-ferment
called a biga. A stiff starter is sometimes referred to by its French name,
levain. Others are looser batters, with the same consistency as a poolish. Thin starters are sometimes called barms. The two types are handled
somewhat differently and have slightly different results.
A thick, doughlike starter is more stable and does not need to be refreshed
as often. It can be refrigerated without being refreshed for several days or even
a week. Stiff starters favor the production of both lactic acid and acetic acid.
Furthermore, the starter will produce more acetic acid under refrigeration
than at room temperature. Often a baker will retard a stiff starter with the goal
of increasing the ratio of acetic to lactic acid.
A thin starter is less stable and must be refreshed more often. It ferments
more quickly than a stiff starter and can become strongly acidic in a short time,
so it must be monitored carefully.Thin starters favor the production primarily
of lactic acid.
The type of starter you choose to make depends on the flavor profile
(balance of acids) you would like and on your production schedule.
Professional bakeshops can usually manage the demanding feeding schedule
of a thin starter. The fact that wet starters ferment more quickly may make
them more adaptable to a bakeshop’s schedule.Casual or amateur bakers often
start with a thin starter because it is easier to mix, but they may find that a stiff
starter is easier to maintain in the long run.
AUTOLYSE
Artisan bakers usually take an extra step during the mixing of the final dough.
This step is called autolyse (pronounced auto-lees).To mix a bread dough in
this fashion, first combine just the flour and water and mix at low speed just
until all the flour is moistened and a dough is formed. Turn off the mixer and
let stand for approximately 30 minutes.
During the autolyse, the flour hydrates fully, meaning the water is
completely absorbed by the flour’s proteins and starches. Also, the enzymes in
the dough begin acting on the proteins before they are too stretched by
mixing.This improves the gluten structure in the bread, making the finished
dough easier to handle and to mold. It also improves the texture of the baked
bread. Because of the improved gluten structure, mixing time is reduced,
meaning less air is mixed into the dough, improving the dough’s color and
flavor. This is because the oxygen in the air has a bleaching effect.
Notice that only the flour and water are included in the autolyse.The yeast
or starter, the salt, and other ingredients are not added until after this rest
period. If the yeast or starter were added to the dough before the autolyse, the
yeast action would increase the acidity of the dough, and this acidity would
inhibit the enzymes from acting. If the salt were added, it would make the
gluten tougher and less stretchable.
After the autolyse period is over, add the remaining ingredients and finish
mixing the dough.
FERMENTATION
After the finished dough is made, the next step in the production of yeast
breads is fermentation.The basics of this stage of production are explained in
chapter 4. Additional information is useful for the baker who is making artisan
breads.
One of the advantages of using pre-ferments is the improvement in flavor
and texture caused by the extended fermentation time.This holds true for the
fermentation of the finished bread dough as well.Yeast will ferment at any
temperature between 33° and 105°F (1° to 40°C). If the temperature is too
low,however, fermentation will be very slow and acidity will be produced.On
the other hand, a high temperature promotes excessively rapid fermentation
and the development of off flavors. As you recall, most production breads are
fermented in proof boxes at a temperature of about 80°F (27°C).
A lower temperature is preferable for artisan breads. Before the
development of proof boxes, doughs were simply fermented at room
temperature. Attempting to duplicate these conditions, artisan bakers may use
fermentation temperatures in the range of 72° to 75°F (22° to 24°C). At these
slightly cooler temperatures, doughs made with a yeast pre-ferment may take
two to three hours to ferment until double in bulk.
Sourdoughs ferment more slowly. A sourdough may take eight hours to
ferment at these cooler temperatures. Some bakers make sourdoughs at the
end of the workday and allow them to ferment overnight. The following
morning, they then make up, proof, and bake the loaves.
It is possible to ferment any of these doughs—yeast pre-ferment doughs
and sourdoughs—at a still lower temperature of about 68°F (20°C). Keep in
mind, however, that the fermentation period will be longer. More acidity will
develop because the acid-forming bacteria will be more active than the yeast.
This increased acidity may or may not be desirable, depending on the product.
You may want to experiment with the results of various fermentation
temperatures and times.
BAKING
The types of artisan breads described in this chapter are usually baked as
hearth breads.That is, they are baked directly on the deck or floor of deck or
hearth ovens. If you must bake them in rack ovens, it is best to use perforated
pans rather than solid pans, because the perforated pans allow for better heat
circulation and more even browning of the crust.
Underbaking is a common fault. Most lean hearth breads are best baked in
a hot oven preheated to 425° to 450°F (218° to 232°C) until the crust takes on
a rich, deep brown color. Use the lower end of this range for large loaves and
the hotter temperatures for small products. Small products need a higher
temperature so the crust browns sufficiently in the shorter baking time.A wellbrowned
crust has a richer flavor because of the well-caramelized starches and
the browned proteins. Pale golden crusts have a blander flavor. In addition,
taking care to bake the bread fully ensures a crisp crust that is less likely to be
softened by excessive moisture from the interior of the bread.
Steam should be used for at least the first 15 minutes of baking. Injecting
moisture into the oven delays the formation of the crust so the bread can
expand fully.Thus the crust will be thin and crisp rather than thick and hard.
The moisture also affects the starches on the surface of the bread, aiding in
creating a more attractively browned crust.
Saturday, April 25, 2009
BREAD FAULTS AND THEIR CAUSES
Because of the complexity of bread production,many things can go wrong.To
remedy common bread faults, check the following troubleshooting guide for
possible causes and correct your procedures.
Fault Causes
Shape
Poor volume Too much salt
Too little yeast
Too little liquid
Weak flour
Under- or overmixing
Oven too hot
Too much Too little salt
volume Too much yeast
Too much dough scaled
Overproofed
Poor shape Too much liquid
Flour too weak
Improper molding or makeup
Improper fermentation or
proofing
Too much oven steam
Split or burst Overmixing
crust Underfermented dough
Improper molding—seam not on
bottom
Uneven heat in oven
Oven too hot
Insufficient steam
Flavor
Flat taste Too little salt
Poor flavor Inferior, spoiled, or rancid
ingredients
Poor bakeshop sanitation
Under- or overfermented
Texture and crumb
Too dense or Too much salt
close-grained Too little liquid
Too little yeast
Underfermented
Underproofed
Too coarse or Too much yeast
open Too much liquid
Incorrect mixing time
Improper fermentation
Overproofed
Pan too large
Streaked Improper mixing procedure
crumb Poor molding or makeup techniques
Too much flour used for dusting
Poor texture or Flour too weak
crumbly Too little salt
Fermentation time too long or too short
Overproofed
Baking temperature too low
Gray crumb Fermentation time or temperature too high
Crust
Too dark Too much sugar or milk
Underfermented dough
Oven temperature too high
Baking time too long
Insufficient steam at beginning of baking
Too pale Too little sugar or milk
Overfermented dough
Overproofed
Oven temperature too low
Baking time too short
Too much steam in oven
Too thick Too little sugar or fat
Improper fermentation
Baked too long or at wrong temperature
Too little steam
Blisters on Too much liquid
crust Improper fermentation
Improper shaping of loaf
remedy common bread faults, check the following troubleshooting guide for
possible causes and correct your procedures.
Fault Causes
Shape
Poor volume Too much salt
Too little yeast
Too little liquid
Weak flour
Under- or overmixing
Oven too hot
Too much Too little salt
volume Too much yeast
Too much dough scaled
Overproofed
Poor shape Too much liquid
Flour too weak
Improper molding or makeup
Improper fermentation or
proofing
Too much oven steam
Split or burst Overmixing
crust Underfermented dough
Improper molding—seam not on
bottom
Uneven heat in oven
Oven too hot
Insufficient steam
Flavor
Flat taste Too little salt
Poor flavor Inferior, spoiled, or rancid
ingredients
Poor bakeshop sanitation
Under- or overfermented
Texture and crumb
Too dense or Too much salt
close-grained Too little liquid
Too little yeast
Underfermented
Underproofed
Too coarse or Too much yeast
open Too much liquid
Incorrect mixing time
Improper fermentation
Overproofed
Pan too large
Streaked Improper mixing procedure
crumb Poor molding or makeup techniques
Too much flour used for dusting
Poor texture or Flour too weak
crumbly Too little salt
Fermentation time too long or too short
Overproofed
Baking temperature too low
Gray crumb Fermentation time or temperature too high
Crust
Too dark Too much sugar or milk
Underfermented dough
Oven temperature too high
Baking time too long
Insufficient steam at beginning of baking
Too pale Too little sugar or milk
Overfermented dough
Overproofed
Oven temperature too low
Baking time too short
Too much steam in oven
Too thick Too little sugar or fat
Improper fermentation
Baked too long or at wrong temperature
Too little steam
Blisters on Too much liquid
crust Improper fermentation
Improper shaping of loaf
CONTROLLING FERMENTATION
Proper fermentation—that is, fermentation that produces a dough that is
neither underripe (young) nor overripe (old)—requires a balance of time,
temperature, and yeast quantity.
TIME
Fermentation times vary, so the time to punch the dough is indicated not by
clock but by the appearance and feel of the dough. Fermentation times given
in the formulas are guidelines only.
To vary the fermentation time, you must control the dough temperature
and the amount of yeast.
TEMPERATURE
Ideally, dough is fermented at the temperature at which it is taken from the
mixer. Large bakeries have special fermentation rooms for controlling
temperature and humidity, but small bakeshops and restaurant kitchens
seldom have this luxury. If a short-fermentation process is used, however, the
fermentation is completed before the dough is greatly affected by changes in
shop temperature.
Water Temperature
Dough must be at the proper
temperature, usually 78° to 80°F
(25.5° to 26.7°C), in order to ferment
at the desired rate. The temperature
of the dough is affected by several
factors:
• Shop temperature
• Flour temperature
• Water temperature
Of these, the water temperature
is the easiest to control in the small
bakeshop.Therefore, when the water
is scaled, it should be brought to the
required temperature.On cold days, it
may have to be warmed, and on hot
days, using a mixture of crushed ice
and water may be necessary. Also, if a
long fermentation is used, the dough
temperature must be reduced in
order to avoid overfermenting.
YEAST QUANTITY
If other conditions are constant, the fermentation time may be increased or
decreased by decreasing or increasing the quantity of yeast (see procedure
below). In general,use no more yeast than is needed.Excessive yeast results in
inferior flavor.
Small Batches
When very small quantities of dough—only a few pounds—are made, the
dough is more likely to be affected by shop temperature. Thus, it may be
necessary to slightly increase the yeast quantity in cool weather and slightly
decrease it in hot weather.
Procedure for Modifying Yeast Quantities
1. Determine a factor by dividing the old fermentation time by the fermentation time
desired.
2. Multiply this factor by the original quantity of yeast to determine the new quantity.
× old yeast quantity = new yeast quantity
Example: A formula requiring 12 oz yeast has a fermentation time of 2 hours at 80°F.
Caution: This procedure should be used within narrow limits only. An excessive
increase or decrease in yeast quantities introduces many other problems and results
in inferior products.
old fermentation time
______________
new fermentation time
Procedure for Determining Water Temperature
1. Multiply the desired dough temperature by 3.
2. Add together the flour temperature and room temperature, plus 20°F (11°C) to allow for
the friction caused by mixing (see note).
3. Subtract the result of step 2 from that of step 1. The difference is the required water
temperature.
Example: Dough temperature needed = 80°F
Flour temperature = 68°F
Room temperature = 72°F
Machine friction = 20°F
Water temperature = ?
1. 80° × 3 = 240°
2. 68° + 72° + 20° = 160°
3. 240° − 160° = 80°
Therefore, the water temperature should be 80°F.
Note: This procedure is precise enough for most purposes in the small bakeshop.
However, there are other complications, such as variations in machine friction, that
you may want to consider if you wish to be even more exact.
OTHER FACTORS
The salt in the formula, the minerals in the water, and the use of dough
conditioners or improvers affect the rate of fermentation.
Water that is excessively soft lacks the minerals that ensure proper gluten
development and dough fermentation. On the other hand, water that is very
hard—that is, has high mineral content and, as a result, is alkaline—also inhibits
the development of the dough.These conditions are more of a problem
for lean doughs than for rich doughs. In most localities, small bakeshops can
overcome these problems with the proper use of salt or, in areas with alkaline
water, by adding a very small amount of a mild acid to the water. Various
dough conditioners, buffers, and improvers that can correct these conditions
are available from bakers’ suppliers.Their use should be determined by local
water conditions.
The richness of the dough must also be considered. Doughs high in fat or
sugar ferment more slowly than lean doughs.This problem can be avoided by
using a sponge instead of a straight dough.
RETARDING
Retarding means slowing the fermentation or proof of yeast doughs by
refrigeration.This may be done in regular refrigerators or in special retarders
that maintain a high humidity. If regular refrigerators are used, the product
must be covered to prevent drying and the formation of a skin.
Retarded Fermentation
Dough to be retarded in bulk is usually given partial fermentation. It is then
flattened on sheet pans, covered with plastic wrap, and placed in the retarder.
The layer of dough must not be too thick because the inside will
take too long to chill and will overferment.When needed,the dough is allowed
to warm before molding.Some doughs high in fat are made up while chilled so
they do not become too soft.
Retarded Proof
Made-up units to be retarded are made from young dough. After makeup,
they are immediately placed in the retarder.When needed, they are allowed to
warm and finish their proof, if necessary.They are then baked.
A valuable laborsaving tool for medium to large bakeshops is the retarderproofer.
As the name suggests, this equipment is a combination of
freezer/retarder and proofer, with thermostats for both functions and with
timers to automate the process.For example,the baker can make up a batch of
rolls in the afternoon or evening and place them in the retarder-proofer with
the controls set for retarding or freezing. The baker sets the timer for the
proper hour the following morning.The machine automatically begins to raise
the temperature, proofing the rolls so they are ready to bake in time for
breakfast.
neither underripe (young) nor overripe (old)—requires a balance of time,
temperature, and yeast quantity.
TIME
Fermentation times vary, so the time to punch the dough is indicated not by
clock but by the appearance and feel of the dough. Fermentation times given
in the formulas are guidelines only.
To vary the fermentation time, you must control the dough temperature
and the amount of yeast.
TEMPERATURE
Ideally, dough is fermented at the temperature at which it is taken from the
mixer. Large bakeries have special fermentation rooms for controlling
temperature and humidity, but small bakeshops and restaurant kitchens
seldom have this luxury. If a short-fermentation process is used, however, the
fermentation is completed before the dough is greatly affected by changes in
shop temperature.
Water Temperature
Dough must be at the proper
temperature, usually 78° to 80°F
(25.5° to 26.7°C), in order to ferment
at the desired rate. The temperature
of the dough is affected by several
factors:
• Shop temperature
• Flour temperature
• Water temperature
Of these, the water temperature
is the easiest to control in the small
bakeshop.Therefore, when the water
is scaled, it should be brought to the
required temperature.On cold days, it
may have to be warmed, and on hot
days, using a mixture of crushed ice
and water may be necessary. Also, if a
long fermentation is used, the dough
temperature must be reduced in
order to avoid overfermenting.
YEAST QUANTITY
If other conditions are constant, the fermentation time may be increased or
decreased by decreasing or increasing the quantity of yeast (see procedure
below). In general,use no more yeast than is needed.Excessive yeast results in
inferior flavor.
Small Batches
When very small quantities of dough—only a few pounds—are made, the
dough is more likely to be affected by shop temperature. Thus, it may be
necessary to slightly increase the yeast quantity in cool weather and slightly
decrease it in hot weather.
Procedure for Modifying Yeast Quantities
1. Determine a factor by dividing the old fermentation time by the fermentation time
desired.
2. Multiply this factor by the original quantity of yeast to determine the new quantity.
× old yeast quantity = new yeast quantity
Example: A formula requiring 12 oz yeast has a fermentation time of 2 hours at 80°F.
Caution: This procedure should be used within narrow limits only. An excessive
increase or decrease in yeast quantities introduces many other problems and results
in inferior products.
old fermentation time
______________
new fermentation time
Procedure for Determining Water Temperature
1. Multiply the desired dough temperature by 3.
2. Add together the flour temperature and room temperature, plus 20°F (11°C) to allow for
the friction caused by mixing (see note).
3. Subtract the result of step 2 from that of step 1. The difference is the required water
temperature.
Example: Dough temperature needed = 80°F
Flour temperature = 68°F
Room temperature = 72°F
Machine friction = 20°F
Water temperature = ?
1. 80° × 3 = 240°
2. 68° + 72° + 20° = 160°
3. 240° − 160° = 80°
Therefore, the water temperature should be 80°F.
Note: This procedure is precise enough for most purposes in the small bakeshop.
However, there are other complications, such as variations in machine friction, that
you may want to consider if you wish to be even more exact.
OTHER FACTORS
The salt in the formula, the minerals in the water, and the use of dough
conditioners or improvers affect the rate of fermentation.
Water that is excessively soft lacks the minerals that ensure proper gluten
development and dough fermentation. On the other hand, water that is very
hard—that is, has high mineral content and, as a result, is alkaline—also inhibits
the development of the dough.These conditions are more of a problem
for lean doughs than for rich doughs. In most localities, small bakeshops can
overcome these problems with the proper use of salt or, in areas with alkaline
water, by adding a very small amount of a mild acid to the water. Various
dough conditioners, buffers, and improvers that can correct these conditions
are available from bakers’ suppliers.Their use should be determined by local
water conditions.
The richness of the dough must also be considered. Doughs high in fat or
sugar ferment more slowly than lean doughs.This problem can be avoided by
using a sponge instead of a straight dough.
RETARDING
Retarding means slowing the fermentation or proof of yeast doughs by
refrigeration.This may be done in regular refrigerators or in special retarders
that maintain a high humidity. If regular refrigerators are used, the product
must be covered to prevent drying and the formation of a skin.
Retarded Fermentation
Dough to be retarded in bulk is usually given partial fermentation. It is then
flattened on sheet pans, covered with plastic wrap, and placed in the retarder.
The layer of dough must not be too thick because the inside will
take too long to chill and will overferment.When needed,the dough is allowed
to warm before molding.Some doughs high in fat are made up while chilled so
they do not become too soft.
Retarded Proof
Made-up units to be retarded are made from young dough. After makeup,
they are immediately placed in the retarder.When needed, they are allowed to
warm and finish their proof, if necessary.They are then baked.
A valuable laborsaving tool for medium to large bakeshops is the retarderproofer.
As the name suggests, this equipment is a combination of
freezer/retarder and proofer, with thermostats for both functions and with
timers to automate the process.For example,the baker can make up a batch of
rolls in the afternoon or evening and place them in the retarder-proofer with
the controls set for retarding or freezing. The baker sets the timer for the
proper hour the following morning.The machine automatically begins to raise
the temperature, proofing the rolls so they are ready to bake in time for
breakfast.
Friday, April 24, 2009
TYPES OF DOUGH-MAKING PROCESSES
STRAIGHT DOUGH
In the typical small retail shop, most breads are mixed by the straight dough
method—that is, all ingredients are mixed in one operation. The dough is then given a bulk fermentation time (that is, until
molding and proofing) of 1 to 21⁄2 hours. This is called a short-fermentation
straight dough.
A no-time dough is made with a large quantity of yeast, taken from the
mixer at a higher temperature (up to 90°F/32°C) and given only a few minutes’
rest before being scaled and made up. It is also given a shorter proof.
This process should be used only in emergencies because the final product
does not have a good texture and flavor.
Long-fermentation doughs are fermented for 5 or 6 hours or longer,
sometimes overnight, at a temperature of 75°F (24°C) or lower.The advantage
of this method is that the long, slow fermentation greatly enhances the flavor
of the product.Some of the best European breads are made this way. The major
disadvantage—besides being harder on the work schedule—is that the
fermentation is harder to control because of fluctuations in temperature and
other factors. Doughs often become overfermented.Therefore, this process is
used much less today than in the past.
To avoid the problems of a long-fermentation straight dough but achieve
the flavor created by a long fermentation, one can use the sponge method.
Sponge Processes
The sponge process involves a two-stage mixing method. First, a sponge is made of water, flour, and yeast and allowed to
ferment.Then the dough is made by mixing in the remaining ingredients.The
finished dough may be given a short fermentation, or, if the sponge has had a
long fermentation, it may be scaled immediately, like a no-time dough.
Advantages of the Sponge Method
• Shorter fermentation time for the finished dough.
• Scheduling flexibility. Sponges can usually be held longer than finished
dough.
• Increased flavor, developed by the long fermentation of the sponge.
• Stronger fermentation of rich doughs. High sugar and fat content inhibits
yeast growth.When the sponge method is used, most of the fermentation
is completed before the fat and sugar are incorporated.
• Less yeast is needed, because it multiplies greatly during the sponge
fermentation.
In the typical small retail shop, most breads are mixed by the straight dough
method—that is, all ingredients are mixed in one operation. The dough is then given a bulk fermentation time (that is, until
molding and proofing) of 1 to 21⁄2 hours. This is called a short-fermentation
straight dough.
A no-time dough is made with a large quantity of yeast, taken from the
mixer at a higher temperature (up to 90°F/32°C) and given only a few minutes’
rest before being scaled and made up. It is also given a shorter proof.
This process should be used only in emergencies because the final product
does not have a good texture and flavor.
Long-fermentation doughs are fermented for 5 or 6 hours or longer,
sometimes overnight, at a temperature of 75°F (24°C) or lower.The advantage
of this method is that the long, slow fermentation greatly enhances the flavor
of the product.Some of the best European breads are made this way. The major
disadvantage—besides being harder on the work schedule—is that the
fermentation is harder to control because of fluctuations in temperature and
other factors. Doughs often become overfermented.Therefore, this process is
used much less today than in the past.
To avoid the problems of a long-fermentation straight dough but achieve
the flavor created by a long fermentation, one can use the sponge method.
Sponge Processes
The sponge process involves a two-stage mixing method. First, a sponge is made of water, flour, and yeast and allowed to
ferment.Then the dough is made by mixing in the remaining ingredients.The
finished dough may be given a short fermentation, or, if the sponge has had a
long fermentation, it may be scaled immediately, like a no-time dough.
Advantages of the Sponge Method
• Shorter fermentation time for the finished dough.
• Scheduling flexibility. Sponges can usually be held longer than finished
dough.
• Increased flavor, developed by the long fermentation of the sponge.
• Stronger fermentation of rich doughs. High sugar and fat content inhibits
yeast growth.When the sponge method is used, most of the fermentation
is completed before the fat and sugar are incorporated.
• Less yeast is needed, because it multiplies greatly during the sponge
fermentation.
YEAST PRODUCT TYPES
STEPS IN
YEAST DOUGH
PRODUCTION
There are 12 basic steps in the production of yeast breads. These steps are
generally applied to all yeast products, with variations depending on the
particular product. In particular, many of the handcrafted artisan breads that
have become popular require more complex procedures.
1. Scaling ingredients
2. Mixing
3. Fermentation
4. Punching
5. Scaling
6. Rounding
7. Benching
8. Makeup and panning
9. Proofing
10. Baking
11. Cooling
12. Storing
As you can see, mixing ingredients into a dough is only one part of a
complex procedure.
This section describes each of these 12 steps, including the basic procedures.
In the next sections, dough making and fermentation are discussed in
greater detail.
SCALING INGREDIENTS
All ingredients must be weighed accurately.
Water, milk, and eggs may be measured by volume.They are scaled at 1 pt
per pound, or 1 kg per liter.However, if quantities are large, it is more accurate
to weigh these liquids.
Special care must be taken when measuring spices and other ingredients
used in very small quantities. This is particularly important with salt, which
affects the rate of fermentation .
MIXING
Mixing yeast doughs has three main purposes:
• To combine all ingredients into a uniform, smooth dough.
• To distribute the yeast evenly throughout the dough.
• To develop the gluten.
Three principal mixing methods are used for yeast doughs: the straight
dough method, the modified straight dough method, and the sponge method
(also called the sponge-and-dough method).
Straight Dough Method
In its simplest form, the straight dough method consists of only one step:
Combine all ingredients in the mixing bowl and mix.Many bakers make goodquality
products by using this procedure.However,the yeast may not be evenly
distributed in the dough. It is therefore safer to mix the yeast separately with a
little of the water.
Procedure: Straight Dough Mixing Method
for Yeast Products
1. Soften the yeast in a little of the water.
Fresh yeast: Mix with about 2 times its weight in water, or more.
Ideal water temperature: 100°F (38°C).
Active dry yeast: Mix with about 4 times its weight in water.
Ideal water temperature: 105°F (40°C).
2. Combine the remaining ingredients, including the rest of the water, in the mixing
bowl. Add the dissolved yeast, taking care not to let it come in contact with the salt.
3. Mix to a smooth, developed dough.
Modified Straight Dough Method
For rich sweet doughs, the straight dough method is modified to ensure even
distribution of the fat and sugar.
Procedure: Modified Straight Dough Method
1. Soften the yeast in part of the liquid, using a separate container.
2. Combine the fat, sugar, salt, milk solids, and flavorings and mix until well combined,
but do not whip until light.
3. Add the eggs gradually, as fast as they are absorbed.
4. Add the liquid and mix briefly.
5. Add the flour and yeast. Mix to a smooth dough.
Sponge Method
Sponge doughs are prepared in two stages. This procedure gives the yeast
action a head start.
The first stage is called a sponge,a yeast starter, or a yeast pre-ferment. All
of these terms mean the same thing. There are many variations of this procedure. Part of the liquid is
sometimes reserved for step 2.
A note on the system of baker’s is needed here.There
are two possible ways to express percentages when using a sponge:
1. Consider the sponge or pre-ferment as a separate formula. Express the
flour in the sponge as 100%.Then, in the main formula, express the total
weight of the sponge as a percentage of the flour weight in the main
formula.
2. Consider the sponge as part of the main formula. Express the flour in the
sponge as a percentage of the total flour in the complete formula.
Each method has its advantages,and bakers have their own preferences.In
this book, both methods are used, depending on the formula, so you can have
experience working with each.
Mixing Times and Speeds
The first two purposes of mixing—combining the ingredients into a dough
and distributing the yeast—are accomplished during the first part of this step.
The remaining time is necessary to develop the gluten. Overmixed and
undermixed doughs have poor volume and texture.
Mixing times given in formulas in this book are guidelines only.You must
learn to tell by sight and feel when a dough is thoroughly mixed.This can be
done only through experience.A properly developed dough feels smooth and
elastic. A lean dough should not be sticky.
Mixing speeds, too, should be taken as guidelines rather than as firm
instructions. Small mixers, whose motors and gears are not as strong as those
of larger mixers, can be damaged if they are run at too high a speed with stiff
bread doughs. In such cases, a lower speed than the one indicated in the
formula should be used. For the same reason, batches of stiff dough should be
kept small.Too large a batch puts excessive strain on the machine.
Follow the recommendations of the mixer manufacturer with regard to
mixing times and batch sizes. If a slower speed is used,extend the
mixing time as necessary to obtain a properly mixed dough.Depending on the
mixer, developing a dough at first or slow speed requires approximately twice
as much time as at second speed.
Rich doughs are generally undermixed slightly because a greater
tenderness is desired for these products. Rye breads are also mixed less
because of their weaker gluten, which tears easily.
Overmixing is a common error in bread making. Gluten that is developed
too long has stretched nearly as far as it can and loses its elasticity. Then it
tears instead of stretches, and molding is more difficult. The texture and
volume of overmixed products are less desirable.
Salt, used in proper quantities, helps alleviate this problem because it
makes gluten stronger and more elastic.
Procedure: Sponge
Method
1. Combine part or all of the liquid, all
of the yeast, and part of the flour
(and, sometimes, part of the sugar).
Mix into a thick batter or soft dough.
Let ferment until double in bulk.
2. Punch down and add the rest of the
flour and the remaining ingredients.
Mix to a uniform, smooth dough.
FERMENTATION
Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on the sugars and starches in
the dough to produce carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and alcohol.
Gluten becomes smoother and more elastic during fermentation, so it
stretches farther and holds more gas. An underfermented dough will not
develop proper volume, and the texture of the product will be coarse. A
dough that ferments too long or at too high a temperature becomes sticky,
hard to work, and slightly sour. An underfermented dough is called a young
dough. An overfermented dough is called an old dough.
Doughs with weak gluten, such as rye doughs and rich doughs, are usually
underfermented or “taken to the bench young.”
Yeast action continues until the yeast cells are killed when the
temperature of the dough reaches 140°F (60°C) in the oven. It is important to
be aware that fermentation continues during the next steps in yeast dough
production—punching, scaling, rounding, benching, and makeup or molding.
Failure to allow for this time may result in overfermented doughs. Doughs that
are to be made into rolls and loaves requiring a great deal of makeup time
should be slightly underfermented to prevent the dough from being too old by
the time makeup is completed.
PUNCHING
Punching is not hitting the dough with your fist. It is a method of deflating the
dough that
• expels carbon dioxide
• redistributes the yeast for further growth
• relaxes the gluten
• equalizes the temperature throughout the dough
Additional fermentation and punching may or may not be necessary,
depending on the product.
SCALING
Using a baker’s scale, divide the dough into pieces of the same weight,
according to the product being made.
During scaling, allowance is made for weight loss due to evaporation of
moisture in the oven.This weight loss is approximately 10 to 13% of the weight
of the dough. Allow an extra 11⁄2 to 2 oz dough for each 1 lb baked bread, or 50
to 65 g per 500 g.
Actual baking loss depends on baking time, size of the unit, and whether it
is baked in a pan or freestanding.
Scaling should be done rapidly and efficiently to avoid overfermenting the
dough.
If a dough divider is used to make rolls, the dough is scaled into presses,
which are then divided into 36 equal pieces .For example,if 11⁄3-oz
rolls are desired, the presses should be scaled at 3 lb (36 × 11⁄3 oz), plus 6 oz to
allow for baking loss. Presses are rounded, relaxed, and divided; the divided
units may or may not be rounded again, depending on the product.
Procedure for
Fermenting Yeast Dough
Place the dough in a container large
enough to allow for expansion of the
dough. Cover the container and let the
dough rise at a temperature of about
80°F (27°C) or at the temperature
indicated in the specific formula.
Ideally, the fermentation temperature
is the same as the temperature of the
dough when it is taken from the mixer.
If proper containers are not available
or if humidity is too low to prevent a
crust from forming on the dough, you
may oil the surface of the dough
lightly.
Fermentation is complete when the
dough is doubled in volume. A dent
remains or fills very slowly after the
fingers are pressed lightly into the top
of the dough if fermentation is
complete. If the dough springs back,
fermentation is not complete.
Procedure for Punching
Dough
Pull up the dough on all sides, fold it
over the center, and press down. Then
turn the dough upside down in the
container.
ROUNDING
After scaling, the pieces of dough are shaped into smooth, round balls. This
procedure forms a kind of skin by stretching the gluten on the outside of the
dough into a smooth layer. Rounding simplifies the later shaping of the dough
and also helps retain gases produced by the yeast.
Your instructor will demonstrate rounding techniques. Machines are also
available that divide and round portions of dough automatically.
BENCHING, BENCH PROOFING, OR
INTERMEDIATE PROOFING
Rounded portions of dough are allowed to rest for 10 to 20 minutes. This
relaxes the gluten to make shaping the dough easier. Also, fermentation
continues during this time.
In large operations, the rounded dough is placed in special proofers for
this rest. Smaller operations place the dough in boxes that are stacked on one
another to keep the dough covered.Or the dough may simply be placed on the
workbench and covered—hence the term benching.
MAKEUP AND PANNING
The dough is shaped into loaves or rolls and then placed in pans or on baking
sheets. Hearth breads—breads baked directly on the bottom of the oven—
may be placed in floured baskets or other molds after makeup.
Proper makeup or molding is of critical importance to the finished baked
product. All gas bubbles should be expelled during molding. Bubbles left in
the dough will result in large air holes in the baked product.
For both pan breads and hearth breads, the seam must be centered on the
bottom to avoid splitting during baking. For units baked in pans, the pan size
must be matched to the weight of the dough.Too little or too much dough will
result in a poorly shaped loaf.
PROOFING
Proofing is a continuation of the process of
yeast fermentation that increases the volume
of the shaped dough.Bakers use two different
terms so they can distinguish between
fermentation of the mixed dough and
proofing of the made-up product before
baking. Proofing temperatures are generally
higher than fermentation temperatures.
Underproofing results in poor volume
and dense texture. Overproofing results in
coarse texture and some loss of flavor.
French bread is generally given a long
proof to create its characteristic open texture.
Its strong gluten withstands the extra
stretching of a long proof.
Rich doughs are slightly underproofed
because their weaker gluten structure does
not withstand too much stretching.
Procedure for Proofing Yeast Dough Items
1. For lean yeast doughs, place the panned products in a proof box at 80° to
85°F (27° to 30°C) and 70 to 80% humidity, or as indicated in the formula.
Proof until double in bulk.
Rich doughs, especially rolled-in doughs, are usually proofed at a lower
temperature (77°F or 25°C) so the butter does not melt out of the dough.
Avoid using too much steam. This weakens the surface of the dough and
causes uneven proofing.
If a proof box is not available, come as close to these conditions as you can by
covering the products to retain moisture and setting them in a warm place.
2. Test-proof by sight (the unit doubles in bulk) and by touch. When touched
lightly, properly proofed dough springs back slowly. If it is still firm and
elastic, it needs more proofing. If the dent remains in the dough, the dough is
probably overproofed.
BAKING
As you recall from chapter 1, many changes take place in the dough during
baking.The most important changes are:
1. Oven spring, which is the rapid rising in the oven due to production and
expansion of trapped gases as a result of the oven heat.The yeast is very
active at first but is killed when the temperature inside the dough reaches
140°F (60°C).
2. Coagulation of proteins and gelatinization of starches. In other words, the
product becomes firm and holds its shape.
3. Formation and browning of the crust.
In order to control the baking process, the following factors should be
considered.
Oven Temperature and
Baking Time
Temperatures must be adjusted for the product being baked. At the proper
temperature, the inside of the unit becomes completely baked at the same
time that the crust achieves the desired color.Therefore:
1. Large units are baked at a lower temperature and for a longer time than
small rolls spaced apart.
2. Rich doughs and sweet doughs are baked at a lower temperature because
their fat, sugar, and milk content makes them brown faster.
3. French breads made with no added sugar and a long fermentation require
very high temperatures to achieve the desired crust color.
• Popular American lean breads are baked at 400° to 425°F (205° to 220°C).
• Some French breads are baked at 425° to 475°F (220° to 245°C).
• Rich products are baked at 350° to 400°F (175° to 205°C).
A golden-brown crust color is the normal indication of doneness. Loaves
that are done sound hollow when thumped.
Washes
Many, if not most, yeast products are brushed with a liquid, called a wash, just
before baking. The most common washes are as follows:
1. Water is used primarily for hard-crusted products, such as French bread.
Like steam in the oven the water helps keep the crust from
drying too quickly and thus becoming too thick.
2. Starch paste is used primarily for rye breads. In addition to keeping the
crust from drying too quickly,the starch paste helps give a shine to the crust.
To make a starch paste, mix 1 oz light rye flour with 1 qt water (60 g rye
per 500 mL water). Bring to a boil while stirring. Cool. If necessary, thin
with water to the consistency of cream.
3. Egg wash is used to give a shiny brown crust to soft breads and rolls and
to rich doughs and Danish.It is made by mixing beaten eggs with water or,
sometimes, with milk. Proportions may vary greatly depending on how
strong a wash is desired.
Cutting or Scoring
A break on the side of the loaf is caused by continued rising after the
crust is formed.To allow for this expansion, the tops of hard-crusted
breads are cut before baking. Slashes are made on the top of the loaf
with a sharp knife or razor immediately before it is put into the oven,
as shown in the figure on the right. The pattern created by the cuts
also contributes to the appearance of the bread.
Small rolls often bake completely without a break, so they are
usually cut for the sake of appearance only.
Note: The term docking is often used for this procedure.
However, many bakers feel this term should be reserved for a
different process—namely, the piercing or perforating of pastry and
pie doughs.To avoid confusion, this book uses the terms cutting and
scoring for the slashing of bread crusts, but you should be aware of
the other term because you will hear it used.
Loading the Ovens
Proofed doughs are fragile until they become set by baking.They should
be handled carefully when being loaded into the ovens, and they
should not be disturbed during the first part of baking.
Breads and rolls are baked either directly on the bottom of the
oven (hearth breads) or in pans.
1. Hearth breads To load ovens, place the proofed units on a
peel that is well dusted with cornmeal. Slide the peel into the
oven. Then,with a quick snap, remove the peel, leaving the loaves
or rolls in place. To remove baked items, quickly slide the peel
under them and pull them out.
2. Pan breads and rolls Freestanding items may be baked on
sheet pans instead of on the hearth. Bakers generally refer to such
breads and rolls as hearth breads even if they are not baked
directly on the bottom of the oven. Sprinkle the pans with
cornmeal to keep the units from sticking and to simulate the
appearance of hearth-baked items. Pans may also be lined with
silicone paper. Perforated sheet pans or screens are also
available.These allow better air circulation and therefore permit
more even browning.
Sandwich loaves and other pan breads are, of course, baked in
loaf pans or other appropriate pans.
Steam
Hard-crusted breads are baked with steam injected into the ovens during the
first part of the baking period.Rye breads also benefit from baking with steam
for the first 10 minutes.
The steam helps keep the crust soft during the first part of baking so the
bread can expand rapidly and evenly. If steam were not used, the crust would
begin forming earlier and thus would become thick and heavy.The steam also
helps distribute the heat in the oven, further aiding oven spring. When the
moisture of the steam reacts with the starches on the surface, some of the
starches form dextrins. Then, when the steam is withdrawn, these dextrins,
along with sugars in the dough,caramelize and turn brown.The result is a thin,
crisp, glazed crust.
Rich doughs, those with higher fat or sugar content, do not form crisp
crusts and are usually baked without steam.
COOLING
After baking, bread must be removed from pans and cooled on racks to allow
the escape of the excess moisture and alcohol created during fermentation.
Small rolls spaced on baking sheets are often cooled on the pans when air
circulation is adequate.On the other hand,if condensation is likely to make the
bottoms of the rolls soggy, it is better to cool them on racks.
If soft crusts are desired, breads may be brushed with melted shortening
before cooling.
Do not cool bread in a draft because the crust may crack.
STORING
Breads to be served within 8 hours may be left on racks. For longer storage,
wrap cooled breads in moisture-proof bags to retard staling. Bread must be
thoroughly cool before wrapping or moisture will collect inside the bags.
Wrapping and freezing maintains quality for longer periods. Refrigeration,
on the other hand, increases staling.
Hard-crusted breads should not be wrapped (unless frozen) because the
crusts will soften and become leathery.
YEAST DOUGH
PRODUCTION
There are 12 basic steps in the production of yeast breads. These steps are
generally applied to all yeast products, with variations depending on the
particular product. In particular, many of the handcrafted artisan breads that
have become popular require more complex procedures.
1. Scaling ingredients
2. Mixing
3. Fermentation
4. Punching
5. Scaling
6. Rounding
7. Benching
8. Makeup and panning
9. Proofing
10. Baking
11. Cooling
12. Storing
As you can see, mixing ingredients into a dough is only one part of a
complex procedure.
This section describes each of these 12 steps, including the basic procedures.
In the next sections, dough making and fermentation are discussed in
greater detail.
SCALING INGREDIENTS
All ingredients must be weighed accurately.
Water, milk, and eggs may be measured by volume.They are scaled at 1 pt
per pound, or 1 kg per liter.However, if quantities are large, it is more accurate
to weigh these liquids.
Special care must be taken when measuring spices and other ingredients
used in very small quantities. This is particularly important with salt, which
affects the rate of fermentation .
MIXING
Mixing yeast doughs has three main purposes:
• To combine all ingredients into a uniform, smooth dough.
• To distribute the yeast evenly throughout the dough.
• To develop the gluten.
Three principal mixing methods are used for yeast doughs: the straight
dough method, the modified straight dough method, and the sponge method
(also called the sponge-and-dough method).
Straight Dough Method
In its simplest form, the straight dough method consists of only one step:
Combine all ingredients in the mixing bowl and mix.Many bakers make goodquality
products by using this procedure.However,the yeast may not be evenly
distributed in the dough. It is therefore safer to mix the yeast separately with a
little of the water.
Procedure: Straight Dough Mixing Method
for Yeast Products
1. Soften the yeast in a little of the water.
Fresh yeast: Mix with about 2 times its weight in water, or more.
Ideal water temperature: 100°F (38°C).
Active dry yeast: Mix with about 4 times its weight in water.
Ideal water temperature: 105°F (40°C).
2. Combine the remaining ingredients, including the rest of the water, in the mixing
bowl. Add the dissolved yeast, taking care not to let it come in contact with the salt.
3. Mix to a smooth, developed dough.
Modified Straight Dough Method
For rich sweet doughs, the straight dough method is modified to ensure even
distribution of the fat and sugar.
Procedure: Modified Straight Dough Method
1. Soften the yeast in part of the liquid, using a separate container.
2. Combine the fat, sugar, salt, milk solids, and flavorings and mix until well combined,
but do not whip until light.
3. Add the eggs gradually, as fast as they are absorbed.
4. Add the liquid and mix briefly.
5. Add the flour and yeast. Mix to a smooth dough.
Sponge Method
Sponge doughs are prepared in two stages. This procedure gives the yeast
action a head start.
The first stage is called a sponge,a yeast starter, or a yeast pre-ferment. All
of these terms mean the same thing. There are many variations of this procedure. Part of the liquid is
sometimes reserved for step 2.
A note on the system of baker’s is needed here.There
are two possible ways to express percentages when using a sponge:
1. Consider the sponge or pre-ferment as a separate formula. Express the
flour in the sponge as 100%.Then, in the main formula, express the total
weight of the sponge as a percentage of the flour weight in the main
formula.
2. Consider the sponge as part of the main formula. Express the flour in the
sponge as a percentage of the total flour in the complete formula.
Each method has its advantages,and bakers have their own preferences.In
this book, both methods are used, depending on the formula, so you can have
experience working with each.
Mixing Times and Speeds
The first two purposes of mixing—combining the ingredients into a dough
and distributing the yeast—are accomplished during the first part of this step.
The remaining time is necessary to develop the gluten. Overmixed and
undermixed doughs have poor volume and texture.
Mixing times given in formulas in this book are guidelines only.You must
learn to tell by sight and feel when a dough is thoroughly mixed.This can be
done only through experience.A properly developed dough feels smooth and
elastic. A lean dough should not be sticky.
Mixing speeds, too, should be taken as guidelines rather than as firm
instructions. Small mixers, whose motors and gears are not as strong as those
of larger mixers, can be damaged if they are run at too high a speed with stiff
bread doughs. In such cases, a lower speed than the one indicated in the
formula should be used. For the same reason, batches of stiff dough should be
kept small.Too large a batch puts excessive strain on the machine.
Follow the recommendations of the mixer manufacturer with regard to
mixing times and batch sizes. If a slower speed is used,extend the
mixing time as necessary to obtain a properly mixed dough.Depending on the
mixer, developing a dough at first or slow speed requires approximately twice
as much time as at second speed.
Rich doughs are generally undermixed slightly because a greater
tenderness is desired for these products. Rye breads are also mixed less
because of their weaker gluten, which tears easily.
Overmixing is a common error in bread making. Gluten that is developed
too long has stretched nearly as far as it can and loses its elasticity. Then it
tears instead of stretches, and molding is more difficult. The texture and
volume of overmixed products are less desirable.
Salt, used in proper quantities, helps alleviate this problem because it
makes gluten stronger and more elastic.
Procedure: Sponge
Method
1. Combine part or all of the liquid, all
of the yeast, and part of the flour
(and, sometimes, part of the sugar).
Mix into a thick batter or soft dough.
Let ferment until double in bulk.
2. Punch down and add the rest of the
flour and the remaining ingredients.
Mix to a uniform, smooth dough.
FERMENTATION
Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on the sugars and starches in
the dough to produce carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and alcohol.
Gluten becomes smoother and more elastic during fermentation, so it
stretches farther and holds more gas. An underfermented dough will not
develop proper volume, and the texture of the product will be coarse. A
dough that ferments too long or at too high a temperature becomes sticky,
hard to work, and slightly sour. An underfermented dough is called a young
dough. An overfermented dough is called an old dough.
Doughs with weak gluten, such as rye doughs and rich doughs, are usually
underfermented or “taken to the bench young.”
Yeast action continues until the yeast cells are killed when the
temperature of the dough reaches 140°F (60°C) in the oven. It is important to
be aware that fermentation continues during the next steps in yeast dough
production—punching, scaling, rounding, benching, and makeup or molding.
Failure to allow for this time may result in overfermented doughs. Doughs that
are to be made into rolls and loaves requiring a great deal of makeup time
should be slightly underfermented to prevent the dough from being too old by
the time makeup is completed.
PUNCHING
Punching is not hitting the dough with your fist. It is a method of deflating the
dough that
• expels carbon dioxide
• redistributes the yeast for further growth
• relaxes the gluten
• equalizes the temperature throughout the dough
Additional fermentation and punching may or may not be necessary,
depending on the product.
SCALING
Using a baker’s scale, divide the dough into pieces of the same weight,
according to the product being made.
During scaling, allowance is made for weight loss due to evaporation of
moisture in the oven.This weight loss is approximately 10 to 13% of the weight
of the dough. Allow an extra 11⁄2 to 2 oz dough for each 1 lb baked bread, or 50
to 65 g per 500 g.
Actual baking loss depends on baking time, size of the unit, and whether it
is baked in a pan or freestanding.
Scaling should be done rapidly and efficiently to avoid overfermenting the
dough.
If a dough divider is used to make rolls, the dough is scaled into presses,
which are then divided into 36 equal pieces .For example,if 11⁄3-oz
rolls are desired, the presses should be scaled at 3 lb (36 × 11⁄3 oz), plus 6 oz to
allow for baking loss. Presses are rounded, relaxed, and divided; the divided
units may or may not be rounded again, depending on the product.
Procedure for
Fermenting Yeast Dough
Place the dough in a container large
enough to allow for expansion of the
dough. Cover the container and let the
dough rise at a temperature of about
80°F (27°C) or at the temperature
indicated in the specific formula.
Ideally, the fermentation temperature
is the same as the temperature of the
dough when it is taken from the mixer.
If proper containers are not available
or if humidity is too low to prevent a
crust from forming on the dough, you
may oil the surface of the dough
lightly.
Fermentation is complete when the
dough is doubled in volume. A dent
remains or fills very slowly after the
fingers are pressed lightly into the top
of the dough if fermentation is
complete. If the dough springs back,
fermentation is not complete.
Procedure for Punching
Dough
Pull up the dough on all sides, fold it
over the center, and press down. Then
turn the dough upside down in the
container.
ROUNDING
After scaling, the pieces of dough are shaped into smooth, round balls. This
procedure forms a kind of skin by stretching the gluten on the outside of the
dough into a smooth layer. Rounding simplifies the later shaping of the dough
and also helps retain gases produced by the yeast.
Your instructor will demonstrate rounding techniques. Machines are also
available that divide and round portions of dough automatically.
BENCHING, BENCH PROOFING, OR
INTERMEDIATE PROOFING
Rounded portions of dough are allowed to rest for 10 to 20 minutes. This
relaxes the gluten to make shaping the dough easier. Also, fermentation
continues during this time.
In large operations, the rounded dough is placed in special proofers for
this rest. Smaller operations place the dough in boxes that are stacked on one
another to keep the dough covered.Or the dough may simply be placed on the
workbench and covered—hence the term benching.
MAKEUP AND PANNING
The dough is shaped into loaves or rolls and then placed in pans or on baking
sheets. Hearth breads—breads baked directly on the bottom of the oven—
may be placed in floured baskets or other molds after makeup.
Proper makeup or molding is of critical importance to the finished baked
product. All gas bubbles should be expelled during molding. Bubbles left in
the dough will result in large air holes in the baked product.
For both pan breads and hearth breads, the seam must be centered on the
bottom to avoid splitting during baking. For units baked in pans, the pan size
must be matched to the weight of the dough.Too little or too much dough will
result in a poorly shaped loaf.
PROOFING
Proofing is a continuation of the process of
yeast fermentation that increases the volume
of the shaped dough.Bakers use two different
terms so they can distinguish between
fermentation of the mixed dough and
proofing of the made-up product before
baking. Proofing temperatures are generally
higher than fermentation temperatures.
Underproofing results in poor volume
and dense texture. Overproofing results in
coarse texture and some loss of flavor.
French bread is generally given a long
proof to create its characteristic open texture.
Its strong gluten withstands the extra
stretching of a long proof.
Rich doughs are slightly underproofed
because their weaker gluten structure does
not withstand too much stretching.
Procedure for Proofing Yeast Dough Items
1. For lean yeast doughs, place the panned products in a proof box at 80° to
85°F (27° to 30°C) and 70 to 80% humidity, or as indicated in the formula.
Proof until double in bulk.
Rich doughs, especially rolled-in doughs, are usually proofed at a lower
temperature (77°F or 25°C) so the butter does not melt out of the dough.
Avoid using too much steam. This weakens the surface of the dough and
causes uneven proofing.
If a proof box is not available, come as close to these conditions as you can by
covering the products to retain moisture and setting them in a warm place.
2. Test-proof by sight (the unit doubles in bulk) and by touch. When touched
lightly, properly proofed dough springs back slowly. If it is still firm and
elastic, it needs more proofing. If the dent remains in the dough, the dough is
probably overproofed.
BAKING
As you recall from chapter 1, many changes take place in the dough during
baking.The most important changes are:
1. Oven spring, which is the rapid rising in the oven due to production and
expansion of trapped gases as a result of the oven heat.The yeast is very
active at first but is killed when the temperature inside the dough reaches
140°F (60°C).
2. Coagulation of proteins and gelatinization of starches. In other words, the
product becomes firm and holds its shape.
3. Formation and browning of the crust.
In order to control the baking process, the following factors should be
considered.
Oven Temperature and
Baking Time
Temperatures must be adjusted for the product being baked. At the proper
temperature, the inside of the unit becomes completely baked at the same
time that the crust achieves the desired color.Therefore:
1. Large units are baked at a lower temperature and for a longer time than
small rolls spaced apart.
2. Rich doughs and sweet doughs are baked at a lower temperature because
their fat, sugar, and milk content makes them brown faster.
3. French breads made with no added sugar and a long fermentation require
very high temperatures to achieve the desired crust color.
• Popular American lean breads are baked at 400° to 425°F (205° to 220°C).
• Some French breads are baked at 425° to 475°F (220° to 245°C).
• Rich products are baked at 350° to 400°F (175° to 205°C).
A golden-brown crust color is the normal indication of doneness. Loaves
that are done sound hollow when thumped.
Washes
Many, if not most, yeast products are brushed with a liquid, called a wash, just
before baking. The most common washes are as follows:
1. Water is used primarily for hard-crusted products, such as French bread.
Like steam in the oven the water helps keep the crust from
drying too quickly and thus becoming too thick.
2. Starch paste is used primarily for rye breads. In addition to keeping the
crust from drying too quickly,the starch paste helps give a shine to the crust.
To make a starch paste, mix 1 oz light rye flour with 1 qt water (60 g rye
per 500 mL water). Bring to a boil while stirring. Cool. If necessary, thin
with water to the consistency of cream.
3. Egg wash is used to give a shiny brown crust to soft breads and rolls and
to rich doughs and Danish.It is made by mixing beaten eggs with water or,
sometimes, with milk. Proportions may vary greatly depending on how
strong a wash is desired.
Cutting or Scoring
A break on the side of the loaf is caused by continued rising after the
crust is formed.To allow for this expansion, the tops of hard-crusted
breads are cut before baking. Slashes are made on the top of the loaf
with a sharp knife or razor immediately before it is put into the oven,
as shown in the figure on the right. The pattern created by the cuts
also contributes to the appearance of the bread.
Small rolls often bake completely without a break, so they are
usually cut for the sake of appearance only.
Note: The term docking is often used for this procedure.
However, many bakers feel this term should be reserved for a
different process—namely, the piercing or perforating of pastry and
pie doughs.To avoid confusion, this book uses the terms cutting and
scoring for the slashing of bread crusts, but you should be aware of
the other term because you will hear it used.
Loading the Ovens
Proofed doughs are fragile until they become set by baking.They should
be handled carefully when being loaded into the ovens, and they
should not be disturbed during the first part of baking.
Breads and rolls are baked either directly on the bottom of the
oven (hearth breads) or in pans.
1. Hearth breads To load ovens, place the proofed units on a
peel that is well dusted with cornmeal. Slide the peel into the
oven. Then,with a quick snap, remove the peel, leaving the loaves
or rolls in place. To remove baked items, quickly slide the peel
under them and pull them out.
2. Pan breads and rolls Freestanding items may be baked on
sheet pans instead of on the hearth. Bakers generally refer to such
breads and rolls as hearth breads even if they are not baked
directly on the bottom of the oven. Sprinkle the pans with
cornmeal to keep the units from sticking and to simulate the
appearance of hearth-baked items. Pans may also be lined with
silicone paper. Perforated sheet pans or screens are also
available.These allow better air circulation and therefore permit
more even browning.
Sandwich loaves and other pan breads are, of course, baked in
loaf pans or other appropriate pans.
Steam
Hard-crusted breads are baked with steam injected into the ovens during the
first part of the baking period.Rye breads also benefit from baking with steam
for the first 10 minutes.
The steam helps keep the crust soft during the first part of baking so the
bread can expand rapidly and evenly. If steam were not used, the crust would
begin forming earlier and thus would become thick and heavy.The steam also
helps distribute the heat in the oven, further aiding oven spring. When the
moisture of the steam reacts with the starches on the surface, some of the
starches form dextrins. Then, when the steam is withdrawn, these dextrins,
along with sugars in the dough,caramelize and turn brown.The result is a thin,
crisp, glazed crust.
Rich doughs, those with higher fat or sugar content, do not form crisp
crusts and are usually baked without steam.
COOLING
After baking, bread must be removed from pans and cooled on racks to allow
the escape of the excess moisture and alcohol created during fermentation.
Small rolls spaced on baking sheets are often cooled on the pans when air
circulation is adequate.On the other hand,if condensation is likely to make the
bottoms of the rolls soggy, it is better to cool them on racks.
If soft crusts are desired, breads may be brushed with melted shortening
before cooling.
Do not cool bread in a draft because the crust may crack.
STORING
Breads to be served within 8 hours may be left on racks. For longer storage,
wrap cooled breads in moisture-proof bags to retard staling. Bread must be
thoroughly cool before wrapping or moisture will collect inside the bags.
Wrapping and freezing maintains quality for longer periods. Refrigeration,
on the other hand, increases staling.
Hard-crusted breads should not be wrapped (unless frozen) because the
crusts will soften and become leathery.
Wednesday, April 22, 2009
CHOCOLATE AND COCOA
Chocolate and cocoa are derived from cocoa or cacao beans.When the beans
are fermented, roasted, and ground, the resulting product is called chocolate
liquor, which contains a white or yellowish fat called cocoa butter.
Cocoa
Cocoa is the dry powder that remains after part of the cocoa butter is
removed from chocolate liquor. Dutch process cocoa, or dutched cocoa, is
processed with an alkali. It is slightly darker, smoother in flavor, and more
easily dissolved in liquids than is natural cocoa.
Natural cocoa is somewhat acidic. When it is used in such products as
cakes, it is possible to use baking soda (which reacts with acid) as part of the
leavening power.
Dutched cocoa, on the other hand, is generally neutral or even slightly
alkaline. Therefore, it does not react with baking soda (see table below).
Instead, baking powder is used as the sole leavening agent. If you are
substituting dutched for natural cocoa, you must increase the baking powder
by 1 oz (30 g) for each 1⁄2 oz (15 g) soda omitted.
If not enough soda is used in chocolate products, the color of the finished
product may range fromlight tan to dark brown,depending on the quantity used.
If too much is used, the color will be reddish brown. This color is desired in
devil’s food cakes, but it may not be wanted in other products.When switching
from one kind of cocoa to another, you may have to adjust the soda in your
recipes.
Baking Soda Needed to Balance the
Acidity of Typical Cocoa Products
Amount of Amount of
baking soda baking soda
per lb per kg
Natural cocoa 1.25 oz 80 g
Dutched cocoa 0 0
Bitter chocolate 0.8 oz 50 g
Sweet chocolate 0.4 oz 25 g
Bitter Chocolate
Bitter or unsweetened chocolate is straight chocolate liquor. It contains no
sugar and has a strongly bitter taste. Because it is molded in blocks, it is also
referred to as block cocoa or cocoa block. It is used to flavor items that have
other sources of sweetness.
In some less expensive brands, some of the cocoa butter may be replaced
by another fat.
Sweet Chocolate
Sweet chocolate is bitter chocolate with the addition of sugar and cocoa butter
in various proportions. If the percentage of sugar is low, sweetened chocolate
may be called semisweet or, with even less sugar, bittersweet. Both of these
products must contain at least 35% chocolate liquor, and their sugar content
ranges from 35 to 50%. A product labeled sweet chocolate may contain as little
as 15% chocolate liquor. Do not confuse sweet chocolate with milk chocolate
(described below). In this book,when sweet chocolate is specified in a recipe,
any sweetened chocolate may be used, although the results will, of course,
vary.Bittersweet chocolate is specified if a good grade of chocolate with a high
chocolate liquor content is essential for the best results.
Because sweet chocolate has only half the chocolate content of bitter
chocolate, it is usually not economical to add it to products that are already
highly sweetened because twice as much will be needed. For example, it is
better to use bitter chocolate when making chocolate fondant from plain
white fondant.
Good-quality chocolate products—including not only dark chocolate but
also milk chocolate and white chocolate (see below)—are often called
couverture, which means “coating” in French.When couverture is used to coat
candies, cookies, and other products, the chocolate must be prepared by a
process called tempering.This involves carefully melting the chocolate without
letting it get too warm, then bringing the temperature back down to a certain
level.The process requires a fair amount of skill.
Less expensive chocolates, which have part of the cocoa butter replaced
by other fats, are easier to handle and don’t require tempering. However, they
do not have the flavor and eating qualities of good chocolate.These products
are sold under such names as cookie coating, cake coating, baking chocolate,
and coating chocolate. Do not confuse coating chocolate with couverture.
These two products are entirely different, even though couverture means
“coating.” It would be less confusing if this lower-quality chocolate were
referred to only as baking chocolate, without using the word coating.
Milk Chocolate
Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate to which milk solids have been added. It is
usually used as a coating chocolate and in various confections. It is seldom
melted and then incorporated in batters because it contains a relatively low
proportion of chocolate liquor.
Cocoa Butter
Cocoa butter is the fat pressed out of chocolate liquor when cocoa is
processed. Its main use in the bakeshop is to thin melted couverture to a
proper consistency.
White Chocolate
White chocolate consists of cocoa butter, sugar, and milk solids. It is used
primarily in confectionery. Some inexpensive brands, in which another fat is
substituted for the cocoa butter, don’t deserve the name chocolate at all, as
they contain neither chocolate nor any of its components.
SUBSTITUTING COCOA
AND CHOCOLATE
Because cocoa is the same as bitter chocolate, only with less cocoa butter, it is
often possible to substitute one product for the other. Shortening is usually
used to take the place of the missing fat. However, various fats behave
differently in baking. Regular shortening, for example, has about twice the
shortening power of cocoa butter, so only half as much is needed in many
products, such as cakes. The procedures below take this difference into
account.
Because of these varying factors, as well as the different baking properties
of cakes, cookies, and other products, it is recommended that you test-bake a
small batch when making a substitution in a formula. You can then make
additional adjustments, if necessary. No single substitution ratio is adequate
for all purposes.
Starch Content of Cocoa
Cocoa contains starch, which tends to absorb moisture in a batter.
Consequently, when cocoa is added to a mix—for example,to change a yellow
Procedure for Substituting Bitter Chocolate for
Natural Cocoa
1. Multiply the weight of the cocoa by 8⁄5. The result is the amount of chocolate to use.
2. Subtract the weight of cocoa from the weight of chocolate. Divide by 2. Reduce the
weight of shortening in the mix by this amount.
Example: Substitute bitter chocolate for 1 lb natural cocoa.
8⁄5 × 16 oz = 26 oz chocolate (rounded off)
= =5 oz less shortening
10
_2
26 oz – 16 oz
__
2
Procedure for Substituting Natural Cocoa in Place of
Bitter Chocolate
1. Multiply the weight of the chocolate by 5⁄8. The result is the amount of cocoa to use.
2. Subtract the weight of the cocoa from the original weight of chocolate. Divide this
difference by 2. The result is the amount of shortening to add to the formula.
Example: Replace 1 lb chocolate with natural cocoa.
5⁄8 × 16 oz = 10 oz cocoa
= = 3 oz shortening
6 oz
_2
16 oz – 10 oz
__
2
cake to a chocolate cake—the quantity of flour is reduced to compensate for
this added starch. Exact adjustments will vary depending on the product.
However, the following may be used as a rule of thumb:
Reduce the flour by 3⁄8 (37.5%) of the weight of cocoa added.
Thus, if 1 lb cocoa is added, the flour is reduced by 6 oz. Or, if 400 g
cocoa is added, reduce the flour by 150 g.
Chocolate,of course,also contains starch.When melted chocolate is added
to fondant, for example, the fondant gets stiffer because of this starch and
usually requires thinning. Often, however, the drying effect of the starch is
balanced by the tenderizing effect of the cocoa butter.
are fermented, roasted, and ground, the resulting product is called chocolate
liquor, which contains a white or yellowish fat called cocoa butter.
Cocoa
Cocoa is the dry powder that remains after part of the cocoa butter is
removed from chocolate liquor. Dutch process cocoa, or dutched cocoa, is
processed with an alkali. It is slightly darker, smoother in flavor, and more
easily dissolved in liquids than is natural cocoa.
Natural cocoa is somewhat acidic. When it is used in such products as
cakes, it is possible to use baking soda (which reacts with acid) as part of the
leavening power.
Dutched cocoa, on the other hand, is generally neutral or even slightly
alkaline. Therefore, it does not react with baking soda (see table below).
Instead, baking powder is used as the sole leavening agent. If you are
substituting dutched for natural cocoa, you must increase the baking powder
by 1 oz (30 g) for each 1⁄2 oz (15 g) soda omitted.
If not enough soda is used in chocolate products, the color of the finished
product may range fromlight tan to dark brown,depending on the quantity used.
If too much is used, the color will be reddish brown. This color is desired in
devil’s food cakes, but it may not be wanted in other products.When switching
from one kind of cocoa to another, you may have to adjust the soda in your
recipes.
Baking Soda Needed to Balance the
Acidity of Typical Cocoa Products
Amount of Amount of
baking soda baking soda
per lb per kg
Natural cocoa 1.25 oz 80 g
Dutched cocoa 0 0
Bitter chocolate 0.8 oz 50 g
Sweet chocolate 0.4 oz 25 g
Bitter Chocolate
Bitter or unsweetened chocolate is straight chocolate liquor. It contains no
sugar and has a strongly bitter taste. Because it is molded in blocks, it is also
referred to as block cocoa or cocoa block. It is used to flavor items that have
other sources of sweetness.
In some less expensive brands, some of the cocoa butter may be replaced
by another fat.
Sweet Chocolate
Sweet chocolate is bitter chocolate with the addition of sugar and cocoa butter
in various proportions. If the percentage of sugar is low, sweetened chocolate
may be called semisweet or, with even less sugar, bittersweet. Both of these
products must contain at least 35% chocolate liquor, and their sugar content
ranges from 35 to 50%. A product labeled sweet chocolate may contain as little
as 15% chocolate liquor. Do not confuse sweet chocolate with milk chocolate
(described below). In this book,when sweet chocolate is specified in a recipe,
any sweetened chocolate may be used, although the results will, of course,
vary.Bittersweet chocolate is specified if a good grade of chocolate with a high
chocolate liquor content is essential for the best results.
Because sweet chocolate has only half the chocolate content of bitter
chocolate, it is usually not economical to add it to products that are already
highly sweetened because twice as much will be needed. For example, it is
better to use bitter chocolate when making chocolate fondant from plain
white fondant.
Good-quality chocolate products—including not only dark chocolate but
also milk chocolate and white chocolate (see below)—are often called
couverture, which means “coating” in French.When couverture is used to coat
candies, cookies, and other products, the chocolate must be prepared by a
process called tempering.This involves carefully melting the chocolate without
letting it get too warm, then bringing the temperature back down to a certain
level.The process requires a fair amount of skill.
Less expensive chocolates, which have part of the cocoa butter replaced
by other fats, are easier to handle and don’t require tempering. However, they
do not have the flavor and eating qualities of good chocolate.These products
are sold under such names as cookie coating, cake coating, baking chocolate,
and coating chocolate. Do not confuse coating chocolate with couverture.
These two products are entirely different, even though couverture means
“coating.” It would be less confusing if this lower-quality chocolate were
referred to only as baking chocolate, without using the word coating.
Milk Chocolate
Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate to which milk solids have been added. It is
usually used as a coating chocolate and in various confections. It is seldom
melted and then incorporated in batters because it contains a relatively low
proportion of chocolate liquor.
Cocoa Butter
Cocoa butter is the fat pressed out of chocolate liquor when cocoa is
processed. Its main use in the bakeshop is to thin melted couverture to a
proper consistency.
White Chocolate
White chocolate consists of cocoa butter, sugar, and milk solids. It is used
primarily in confectionery. Some inexpensive brands, in which another fat is
substituted for the cocoa butter, don’t deserve the name chocolate at all, as
they contain neither chocolate nor any of its components.
SUBSTITUTING COCOA
AND CHOCOLATE
Because cocoa is the same as bitter chocolate, only with less cocoa butter, it is
often possible to substitute one product for the other. Shortening is usually
used to take the place of the missing fat. However, various fats behave
differently in baking. Regular shortening, for example, has about twice the
shortening power of cocoa butter, so only half as much is needed in many
products, such as cakes. The procedures below take this difference into
account.
Because of these varying factors, as well as the different baking properties
of cakes, cookies, and other products, it is recommended that you test-bake a
small batch when making a substitution in a formula. You can then make
additional adjustments, if necessary. No single substitution ratio is adequate
for all purposes.
Starch Content of Cocoa
Cocoa contains starch, which tends to absorb moisture in a batter.
Consequently, when cocoa is added to a mix—for example,to change a yellow
Procedure for Substituting Bitter Chocolate for
Natural Cocoa
1. Multiply the weight of the cocoa by 8⁄5. The result is the amount of chocolate to use.
2. Subtract the weight of cocoa from the weight of chocolate. Divide by 2. Reduce the
weight of shortening in the mix by this amount.
Example: Substitute bitter chocolate for 1 lb natural cocoa.
8⁄5 × 16 oz = 26 oz chocolate (rounded off)
= =5 oz less shortening
10
_2
26 oz – 16 oz
__
2
Procedure for Substituting Natural Cocoa in Place of
Bitter Chocolate
1. Multiply the weight of the chocolate by 5⁄8. The result is the amount of cocoa to use.
2. Subtract the weight of the cocoa from the original weight of chocolate. Divide this
difference by 2. The result is the amount of shortening to add to the formula.
Example: Replace 1 lb chocolate with natural cocoa.
5⁄8 × 16 oz = 10 oz cocoa
= = 3 oz shortening
6 oz
_2
16 oz – 10 oz
__
2
cake to a chocolate cake—the quantity of flour is reduced to compensate for
this added starch. Exact adjustments will vary depending on the product.
However, the following may be used as a rule of thumb:
Reduce the flour by 3⁄8 (37.5%) of the weight of cocoa added.
Thus, if 1 lb cocoa is added, the flour is reduced by 6 oz. Or, if 400 g
cocoa is added, reduce the flour by 150 g.
Chocolate,of course,also contains starch.When melted chocolate is added
to fondant, for example, the fondant gets stiffer because of this starch and
usually requires thinning. Often, however, the drying effect of the starch is
balanced by the tenderizing effect of the cocoa butter.
FRUITS AND NUTS
FRUIT PRODUCTS
Nearly any kind of fresh fruit can be used in the production of desserts. In
addition, a wide variety of dried, frozen, canned, and processed fruit products
are important ingredients in the bakeshop.The following is a list of some of the
most important fruit products.
Fresh
apples
apricots
bananas
berries
cherries
figs
grapefruit
grapes
kiwi
kumquats
lemons
limes
mangoes
melons
nectarines
oranges
papayas
passion fruit
peaches
pears
pineapples
plums
rhubarb (actually
not a fruit but a
stem)
Canned and
frozen
apples, sliced
apricots, halves
blueberries
cherries, both sour
and sweet
peaches, slices and
halves
pineapple, rings,
chunks, nibs,
crushed, juice
strawberries
Dried
apricots
currants (actually
very small raisins)
dates
figs
raisins, light and
dark
prunes
Candied and glacé
cherries
citron
figs
fruitcake mix
lemon peel
orange peel
pineapple
Other processed
fruits
apricot glaze or
coating
jams, jellies, and
preserves
prepared pie
fillings
NUTS
Most nuts are available whole, halved, or broken or chopped. Because they are
high in oil, all nuts can become rancid. Store them tightly closed in a cool, dark
place.
Almonds The most important nut in the bakeshop. Available natural
(skin on) and blanched (skin off) in many forms: whole, split, slivered,
chopped, ground (almond flour).
Brazil nuts
Cashews
Chestnuts Must be cooked. Forms used in bakeshops are purée and
glacé (in syrup).
Coconut Sweetened coconut is used primarily for cake decoration.
Unsweetened coconut is used as an ingredient in a great variety of goods
such as cookies, macaroons, cakes, and fillings. Many types are available,
based on the size of the individual grains, flakes, or shreds. The smallest
types are extra fine, which is about the texture of granulated sugar, and
macaroon, about the texture of cornmeal. Large sizes include short and
long shred, chip, and flake.
Hazelnuts Best if toasted before use. Also available ground (hazelnut
flour or meal).
Macadamia nuts
Pecans More expensive than
walnuts. Used in premium goods.
Peanuts
Pine nuts or pignoli Small kernels that
are usually toasted to enhance flavor.
Especially important in Italian pastries.
Pistachios Often used in
decorations because of the attractive
green color of the kernel.
Walnuts One of the most important
nuts in the bakeshop, along with
almonds and hazelnuts.
NUT PRODUCTS
Almond paste An expensive but highly versatile nut paste used in a
variety of cakes, pastries, cookies, and fillings. It is made from two parts
finely ground almonds and one part sugar, plus enough moisture to bring
it to the proper consistency.
Kernel paste A product similar to almond paste,but less expensive. It is
made from apricot kernels, which have a strong almondlike flavor.
Macaroon paste This product stands between almond paste and
kernel paste in that it is made from a blend of almonds and apricot kernels.
Hazelnuts
Pecans
Pine nuts or pignoli
Walnuts
Pistachios
Almonds
Marzipan Essentially a sweetened almond paste, used in decorative
and confectionery work.This product can be purchased or made in the
bakeshop from almond paste.
Praline paste A confectionery paste made from almonds and/or
hazelnuts and caramelized sugar, all ground to a paste. It is used as a
flavoring for icings, fillings, pastries, and creams.
Nearly any kind of fresh fruit can be used in the production of desserts. In
addition, a wide variety of dried, frozen, canned, and processed fruit products
are important ingredients in the bakeshop.The following is a list of some of the
most important fruit products.
Fresh
apples
apricots
bananas
berries
cherries
figs
grapefruit
grapes
kiwi
kumquats
lemons
limes
mangoes
melons
nectarines
oranges
papayas
passion fruit
peaches
pears
pineapples
plums
rhubarb (actually
not a fruit but a
stem)
Canned and
frozen
apples, sliced
apricots, halves
blueberries
cherries, both sour
and sweet
peaches, slices and
halves
pineapple, rings,
chunks, nibs,
crushed, juice
strawberries
Dried
apricots
currants (actually
very small raisins)
dates
figs
raisins, light and
dark
prunes
Candied and glacé
cherries
citron
figs
fruitcake mix
lemon peel
orange peel
pineapple
Other processed
fruits
apricot glaze or
coating
jams, jellies, and
preserves
prepared pie
fillings
NUTS
Most nuts are available whole, halved, or broken or chopped. Because they are
high in oil, all nuts can become rancid. Store them tightly closed in a cool, dark
place.
Almonds The most important nut in the bakeshop. Available natural
(skin on) and blanched (skin off) in many forms: whole, split, slivered,
chopped, ground (almond flour).
Brazil nuts
Cashews
Chestnuts Must be cooked. Forms used in bakeshops are purée and
glacé (in syrup).
Coconut Sweetened coconut is used primarily for cake decoration.
Unsweetened coconut is used as an ingredient in a great variety of goods
such as cookies, macaroons, cakes, and fillings. Many types are available,
based on the size of the individual grains, flakes, or shreds. The smallest
types are extra fine, which is about the texture of granulated sugar, and
macaroon, about the texture of cornmeal. Large sizes include short and
long shred, chip, and flake.
Hazelnuts Best if toasted before use. Also available ground (hazelnut
flour or meal).
Macadamia nuts
Pecans More expensive than
walnuts. Used in premium goods.
Peanuts
Pine nuts or pignoli Small kernels that
are usually toasted to enhance flavor.
Especially important in Italian pastries.
Pistachios Often used in
decorations because of the attractive
green color of the kernel.
Walnuts One of the most important
nuts in the bakeshop, along with
almonds and hazelnuts.
NUT PRODUCTS
Almond paste An expensive but highly versatile nut paste used in a
variety of cakes, pastries, cookies, and fillings. It is made from two parts
finely ground almonds and one part sugar, plus enough moisture to bring
it to the proper consistency.
Kernel paste A product similar to almond paste,but less expensive. It is
made from apricot kernels, which have a strong almondlike flavor.
Macaroon paste This product stands between almond paste and
kernel paste in that it is made from a blend of almonds and apricot kernels.
Hazelnuts
Pecans
Pine nuts or pignoli
Walnuts
Pistachios
Almonds
Marzipan Essentially a sweetened almond paste, used in decorative
and confectionery work.This product can be purchased or made in the
bakeshop from almond paste.
Praline paste A confectionery paste made from almonds and/or
hazelnuts and caramelized sugar, all ground to a paste. It is used as a
flavoring for icings, fillings, pastries, and creams.
JELLING AGENTS
JELLING AGENTS
GELATIN
Gelatin is a water-soluble protein extracted from animal connective tissue.
When a sufficient quantity of gelatin is dissolved in hot water or other liquid,
the liquid will solidify when cooled or chilled.
Culinary gelatin is available in a powdered form and in sheets. Powdered
gelatin is most widely available to North American kitchens, although sheet
gelatin, also called leaf gelatin, is also available and is often preferred by pastry
chefs. The sheet form is especially easy to use as it is premeasured (the sheets
are of uniform weights).Also, when using sheet gelatin, it is not necessary to
measure the liquid for soaking it.This is explained below.
By weight, powdered gelatin has the same jelling power as sheet gelatin.
One teaspoon of powdered gelatin weighs about 2.8 g or 1⁄ 10 oz.Ten teaspoons
equal 1 oz.The reference table on page 54 lists volume equivalents for a range
of weights of gelatin.
Sheet gelatin is available in sizes ranging from 1.7 g to 3 g.
Powdered gelatin and sheet gelatin can be used interchangeably, but they
are handled differently. Guidelines for handling the two products and for
substituting one for the other are described below.
Using Gelatin in Formulas
Using gelatin in a formula requires three main steps:
1. The gelatin is softened in water or other liquid. It absorbs 5 times its
weight in water.
2. The softened gelatin is added to hot ingredients, or it is heated with other
ingredients, until it dissolves.
3. The mixture is chilled until it sets.
Sheet and granulated gelatin
Most of the formulas in this book that require gelatin were developed using
powdered gelatin (others were developed using sheet gelatin).The following
guidelines will help you use recipes requiring gelatin:
• When a formula was developed using sheet gelatin, no soaking liquid is
indicated in the ingredient list. In the procedure, the instructions direct
you to soften the gelatin in cold water. To use sheet gelatin, add the
indicated weight of gelatin to a generous quantity of cold water and soak
until soft. Remove the soaked sheets from the water, drain well, and
incorporate into the formula.
• Always use very cold water to soak sheet gelatin. If the water is warm,
some gelatin will dissolve and be lost.
• To substitute powdered gelatin when no quantity of soaking liquid is
given, measure the gelatin, then add 5 times its weight of cold water. Let
stand until the water is absorbed.
• When a formula was developed using powdered gelatin, the quantity of
water for soaking is usually indicated. Either powdered gelatin or sheet
gelatin can be used in these formulas. Add the measured gelatin to the
measured water and soak.Then add the gelatin and the soaking liquid to
the mixture in the formula.
• For an example of a formula developed using sheet gelatin, in which no
soaking liquid is indicated in the ingredient list, For an example of a formula developed using powdered gelatin, in
which the quantity of soaking liquid is indicated.
Bavarian creams and many mousses depend on gelatin for their texture.
Weight-Volume Equivalents for
Powdered Gelatin
U.S. Metric
Approximate Approximate
Weight volume Weight volume
0.1 oz 1 tsp 1 g 1.75 mL
0.12–0.13 oz 11⁄ 4 tsp 2 g 3.5 mL
0.16–0.17 oz 12⁄ 3 tsp 3 g 5 mL
0.2 oz 2 tsp 4 g 7 mL
0.25 oz 21⁄ 2 tsp 6 g 10 mL
0.33 oz 31⁄ 3 tsp 8 g 14 mL
0.4 oz 4 tsp 10 g 18 mL
0.5 oz 5 tsp 12 g 21 mL
0.75 oz 71⁄ 2 tsp 14 g 25 mL
1 oz 10 tsp 16 g 28 mL
20 g 36 mL
30 g 54 mL
PECTIN
Pectin is a soluble fiber present in many fruits. In general, unripe fruits have
more pectin than ripe fruits. One of the reasons fruits get softer as they ripen
is that the pectin breaks down.
Pectin is extracted from fruits and used to thicken or jell fruit preserves,
jams, and jellies. It can also be used to make fruit glazes, because the pectin
thickens or sets fruit juices and purées.
Several fruit preparations in chapter 20 require the use of pectin.
GELATIN
Gelatin is a water-soluble protein extracted from animal connective tissue.
When a sufficient quantity of gelatin is dissolved in hot water or other liquid,
the liquid will solidify when cooled or chilled.
Culinary gelatin is available in a powdered form and in sheets. Powdered
gelatin is most widely available to North American kitchens, although sheet
gelatin, also called leaf gelatin, is also available and is often preferred by pastry
chefs. The sheet form is especially easy to use as it is premeasured (the sheets
are of uniform weights).Also, when using sheet gelatin, it is not necessary to
measure the liquid for soaking it.This is explained below.
By weight, powdered gelatin has the same jelling power as sheet gelatin.
One teaspoon of powdered gelatin weighs about 2.8 g or 1⁄ 10 oz.Ten teaspoons
equal 1 oz.The reference table on page 54 lists volume equivalents for a range
of weights of gelatin.
Sheet gelatin is available in sizes ranging from 1.7 g to 3 g.
Powdered gelatin and sheet gelatin can be used interchangeably, but they
are handled differently. Guidelines for handling the two products and for
substituting one for the other are described below.
Using Gelatin in Formulas
Using gelatin in a formula requires three main steps:
1. The gelatin is softened in water or other liquid. It absorbs 5 times its
weight in water.
2. The softened gelatin is added to hot ingredients, or it is heated with other
ingredients, until it dissolves.
3. The mixture is chilled until it sets.
Sheet and granulated gelatin
Most of the formulas in this book that require gelatin were developed using
powdered gelatin (others were developed using sheet gelatin).The following
guidelines will help you use recipes requiring gelatin:
• When a formula was developed using sheet gelatin, no soaking liquid is
indicated in the ingredient list. In the procedure, the instructions direct
you to soften the gelatin in cold water. To use sheet gelatin, add the
indicated weight of gelatin to a generous quantity of cold water and soak
until soft. Remove the soaked sheets from the water, drain well, and
incorporate into the formula.
• Always use very cold water to soak sheet gelatin. If the water is warm,
some gelatin will dissolve and be lost.
• To substitute powdered gelatin when no quantity of soaking liquid is
given, measure the gelatin, then add 5 times its weight of cold water. Let
stand until the water is absorbed.
• When a formula was developed using powdered gelatin, the quantity of
water for soaking is usually indicated. Either powdered gelatin or sheet
gelatin can be used in these formulas. Add the measured gelatin to the
measured water and soak.Then add the gelatin and the soaking liquid to
the mixture in the formula.
• For an example of a formula developed using sheet gelatin, in which no
soaking liquid is indicated in the ingredient list, For an example of a formula developed using powdered gelatin, in
which the quantity of soaking liquid is indicated.
Bavarian creams and many mousses depend on gelatin for their texture.
Weight-Volume Equivalents for
Powdered Gelatin
U.S. Metric
Approximate Approximate
Weight volume Weight volume
0.1 oz 1 tsp 1 g 1.75 mL
0.12–0.13 oz 11⁄ 4 tsp 2 g 3.5 mL
0.16–0.17 oz 12⁄ 3 tsp 3 g 5 mL
0.2 oz 2 tsp 4 g 7 mL
0.25 oz 21⁄ 2 tsp 6 g 10 mL
0.33 oz 31⁄ 3 tsp 8 g 14 mL
0.4 oz 4 tsp 10 g 18 mL
0.5 oz 5 tsp 12 g 21 mL
0.75 oz 71⁄ 2 tsp 14 g 25 mL
1 oz 10 tsp 16 g 28 mL
20 g 36 mL
30 g 54 mL
PECTIN
Pectin is a soluble fiber present in many fruits. In general, unripe fruits have
more pectin than ripe fruits. One of the reasons fruits get softer as they ripen
is that the pectin breaks down.
Pectin is extracted from fruits and used to thicken or jell fruit preserves,
jams, and jellies. It can also be used to make fruit glazes, because the pectin
thickens or sets fruit juices and purées.
Several fruit preparations in chapter 20 require the use of pectin.
LEAVENING AGENTS
LEAVENING AGENTS
Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to
increase volume and to produce shape and texture. These gases must be
retained in the product until the structure is set enough (by the coagulation of
gluten and egg proteins and the gelatinization of starches) to hold its shape.
Exact measurement of leavening agents is important because small
changes can produce major defects in baked products.
YEAST
Yeast is the leavening agent in breads, dinner rolls, Danish pastries, and similar
products. This section discusses the characteristics of yeast.
Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on sugars and changes
them into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. This release of gas produces the
leavening action in yeast products.The alcohol evaporates completely during
and immediately after baking.
Fermentable sugar in bread dough comes from two sources:
1. It is added to the dough by the baker.
2. It is produced from flour by enzymes that break down the wheat starch
into sugar.These enzymes are present in the flour and/or are added by the
baker in the form of diastatic malt.
Yeast is a microscopic plant that accomplishes this fermentation process
by producing enzymes. Some of these enzymes change complex sugars
(sucrose and maltose) into simple sugars. Others change the simple sugars into
carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.The following formula describes this reaction
in chemical terms:
C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH
simple sugar carbon dioxide alcohol
Because yeast is a living organism, it is sensitive to temperatures.
34°F (1°C) Inactive (storage temperature)
60° to 70°F (15° to 20°C) Slow action
70° to 90°F (20° to 32°C) Best growth (fermentation and proofing
temperatures for bread doughs)
Above 100°F (38°C) Reaction slows
140°F (60°C) Yeast is killed
Yeast is available in three forms:
1. Fresh yeast, also called compressed yeast, is moist and perishable and
is preferred by professional bakers. It is usually purchased in 1-lb (450 g)
cakes.
2. Active dry yeast is a dry, granular form of yeast. Active dry yeast must be
rehydrated in 4 times its weight of warm water [about 110°F (43°C)]
before use.When using active dry yeast in a bread formula, use part of the
water in the formula to dissolve the yeast. Do not add additional water.
3. Instant dry yeast is also a dry granular form of yeast, but it does not have
to be dissolved in water before use. It can be added in its dry form because
it absorbs water much more quickly than regular dry yeast. It also
produces more gas than regular dry yeast, so less of it is needed. Instant
dry yeast is sometimes called rapid-rise or quick-rise yeast.
In this book,when yeast is required in a formula, fresh yeast is specified.To
substitute dry yeast, use the following guidelines.
• To convert fresh yeast to regular active dry yeast, multiply the quantity by
0.5. For example, if the formula calls for 1.5 oz fresh yeast, multiply by 0.5
to get 0.75 oz active dry yeast.
• To convert fresh yeast to instant dry yeast, multiply the quantity by 0.35.
For example,if the formula calls for 40 g fresh yeast,multiply by 0.35 to get
14 g instant yeast.
Yeast contributes flavor in addition to leavening action.
CHEMICAL LEAVENERS
Chemical leaveners are those that release gases produced by chemical
reactions.
Baking Soda
Baking soda is the chemical sodium bicarbonate. If moisture and an acid are
present, soda releases carbon dioxide gas, which leavens the product.
Heat is not necessary for the reaction (though the gas is released faster at
high temperatures). For this reason, products leavened with soda must be
baked at once or gases will escape and leavening power will be lost.
Acids that react with soda in a batter include honey, molasses, buttermilk,
fruit juices and purées, and chocolate. Sometimes cream of tartar is used for
the acid.The amount of soda used in a formula is generally the amount needed
to balance the acid. If more leavening power is needed, baking powder, not
more soda, is used.
Baking Powder
Baking powders are mixtures of baking soda plus an acid to react with it.They
also contain starch, which prevents lumping and brings the leavening power
down to a standard level. Because baking powders do not depend for their
leavening power on acid ingredients in a formula, they are more versatile.
Single-acting baking powders require only moisture to be able to release
gas. Like baking soda, they can be used only if the product is to be baked
immediately after mixing.
Double-acting baking powders release some gas when cold, but they
require heat for complete reaction. Thus, cake batters made with these can
incorporate the leavening agent early in the mixing period and then stand for
some time before being baked.
Do not include more baking powder than necessary in a formula because
undesirable flavors may be created. Also, excess leavening may create an
undesirably light, crumbly texture. Cakes may rise too much and then fall
before they become set.
Baking Ammonia
Baking ammonia is a mixture of ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate,
and ammonium carbamate. It decomposes rapidly during baking to
form carbon dioxide gas, ammonia gas, and water. Only heat and moisture are
necessary for it to work. No acids are needed.
Because it decomposes completely, it leaves no residue that could affect
flavor when it is properly used.However, it can be used only in small products
that are baked until dry, such as cookies. Only in such products can the
ammonia gas be completely driven off.
Because ammonia releases gases very quickly, it is sometimes used in
products in which rapid leavening is desired, such as cream puffs. Use of
ammonia enables the baker to lower the cost of such products by reducing the
quantity of eggs.However, the quality of the resulting goods is lowered.
Storage of Chemical Leaveners
Baking soda, powder, and ammonia must always be kept tightly closed when
not in use. If left open, they can absorb moisture from the air and lose part of
their leavening power.They must be stored in a cool place, because heat also
causes them to deteriorate.
AIR
Air is incorporated into a batter primarily by two methods: creaming and
foaming.This air expands during baking and leavens the products.
1. Creaming is the process of beating fat and sugar together to incorporate
air. It is an important technique in cake and cookie making. Some pound
cakes and cookies are leavened almost entirely by this method.
2. Foaming is the process of beating eggs, with or without sugar, to
incorporate air. Foams made with whole eggs are used to leaven sponge
cakes, while angel food cakes, meringues, and soufflés are leavened with
egg white foams.
STEAM
When water turns to steam, it expands to 1,100 times its original volume.
Because all baked products contain some moisture, steam is an important
leavening agent.
Puff pastry, cream puffs, popovers, and pie crusts use steam as their
primary or only leavening agent. If the starting baking temperature for these
products is high, steam is produced rapidly and leavening is greatest.
Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to
increase volume and to produce shape and texture. These gases must be
retained in the product until the structure is set enough (by the coagulation of
gluten and egg proteins and the gelatinization of starches) to hold its shape.
Exact measurement of leavening agents is important because small
changes can produce major defects in baked products.
YEAST
Yeast is the leavening agent in breads, dinner rolls, Danish pastries, and similar
products. This section discusses the characteristics of yeast.
Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on sugars and changes
them into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. This release of gas produces the
leavening action in yeast products.The alcohol evaporates completely during
and immediately after baking.
Fermentable sugar in bread dough comes from two sources:
1. It is added to the dough by the baker.
2. It is produced from flour by enzymes that break down the wheat starch
into sugar.These enzymes are present in the flour and/or are added by the
baker in the form of diastatic malt.
Yeast is a microscopic plant that accomplishes this fermentation process
by producing enzymes. Some of these enzymes change complex sugars
(sucrose and maltose) into simple sugars. Others change the simple sugars into
carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.The following formula describes this reaction
in chemical terms:
C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH
simple sugar carbon dioxide alcohol
Because yeast is a living organism, it is sensitive to temperatures.
34°F (1°C) Inactive (storage temperature)
60° to 70°F (15° to 20°C) Slow action
70° to 90°F (20° to 32°C) Best growth (fermentation and proofing
temperatures for bread doughs)
Above 100°F (38°C) Reaction slows
140°F (60°C) Yeast is killed
Yeast is available in three forms:
1. Fresh yeast, also called compressed yeast, is moist and perishable and
is preferred by professional bakers. It is usually purchased in 1-lb (450 g)
cakes.
2. Active dry yeast is a dry, granular form of yeast. Active dry yeast must be
rehydrated in 4 times its weight of warm water [about 110°F (43°C)]
before use.When using active dry yeast in a bread formula, use part of the
water in the formula to dissolve the yeast. Do not add additional water.
3. Instant dry yeast is also a dry granular form of yeast, but it does not have
to be dissolved in water before use. It can be added in its dry form because
it absorbs water much more quickly than regular dry yeast. It also
produces more gas than regular dry yeast, so less of it is needed. Instant
dry yeast is sometimes called rapid-rise or quick-rise yeast.
In this book,when yeast is required in a formula, fresh yeast is specified.To
substitute dry yeast, use the following guidelines.
• To convert fresh yeast to regular active dry yeast, multiply the quantity by
0.5. For example, if the formula calls for 1.5 oz fresh yeast, multiply by 0.5
to get 0.75 oz active dry yeast.
• To convert fresh yeast to instant dry yeast, multiply the quantity by 0.35.
For example,if the formula calls for 40 g fresh yeast,multiply by 0.35 to get
14 g instant yeast.
Yeast contributes flavor in addition to leavening action.
CHEMICAL LEAVENERS
Chemical leaveners are those that release gases produced by chemical
reactions.
Baking Soda
Baking soda is the chemical sodium bicarbonate. If moisture and an acid are
present, soda releases carbon dioxide gas, which leavens the product.
Heat is not necessary for the reaction (though the gas is released faster at
high temperatures). For this reason, products leavened with soda must be
baked at once or gases will escape and leavening power will be lost.
Acids that react with soda in a batter include honey, molasses, buttermilk,
fruit juices and purées, and chocolate. Sometimes cream of tartar is used for
the acid.The amount of soda used in a formula is generally the amount needed
to balance the acid. If more leavening power is needed, baking powder, not
more soda, is used.
Baking Powder
Baking powders are mixtures of baking soda plus an acid to react with it.They
also contain starch, which prevents lumping and brings the leavening power
down to a standard level. Because baking powders do not depend for their
leavening power on acid ingredients in a formula, they are more versatile.
Single-acting baking powders require only moisture to be able to release
gas. Like baking soda, they can be used only if the product is to be baked
immediately after mixing.
Double-acting baking powders release some gas when cold, but they
require heat for complete reaction. Thus, cake batters made with these can
incorporate the leavening agent early in the mixing period and then stand for
some time before being baked.
Do not include more baking powder than necessary in a formula because
undesirable flavors may be created. Also, excess leavening may create an
undesirably light, crumbly texture. Cakes may rise too much and then fall
before they become set.
Baking Ammonia
Baking ammonia is a mixture of ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate,
and ammonium carbamate. It decomposes rapidly during baking to
form carbon dioxide gas, ammonia gas, and water. Only heat and moisture are
necessary for it to work. No acids are needed.
Because it decomposes completely, it leaves no residue that could affect
flavor when it is properly used.However, it can be used only in small products
that are baked until dry, such as cookies. Only in such products can the
ammonia gas be completely driven off.
Because ammonia releases gases very quickly, it is sometimes used in
products in which rapid leavening is desired, such as cream puffs. Use of
ammonia enables the baker to lower the cost of such products by reducing the
quantity of eggs.However, the quality of the resulting goods is lowered.
Storage of Chemical Leaveners
Baking soda, powder, and ammonia must always be kept tightly closed when
not in use. If left open, they can absorb moisture from the air and lose part of
their leavening power.They must be stored in a cool place, because heat also
causes them to deteriorate.
AIR
Air is incorporated into a batter primarily by two methods: creaming and
foaming.This air expands during baking and leavens the products.
1. Creaming is the process of beating fat and sugar together to incorporate
air. It is an important technique in cake and cookie making. Some pound
cakes and cookies are leavened almost entirely by this method.
2. Foaming is the process of beating eggs, with or without sugar, to
incorporate air. Foams made with whole eggs are used to leaven sponge
cakes, while angel food cakes, meringues, and soufflés are leavened with
egg white foams.
STEAM
When water turns to steam, it expands to 1,100 times its original volume.
Because all baked products contain some moisture, steam is an important
leavening agent.
Puff pastry, cream puffs, popovers, and pie crusts use steam as their
primary or only leavening agent. If the starting baking temperature for these
products is high, steam is produced rapidly and leavening is greatest.
Tuesday, April 21, 2009
EGGS
EGGS
Eggs should be well understood by the baker because they are used in
large quantities in the bakeshop and are more expensive than many of
the other high-volume ingredients, such as flour and sugar. For
example, half or more of the ingredient cost of the average cake
batter is for the eggs.
COMPOSITION
A whole egg consists primarily of a yolk, a white, and a shell. In
addition, it contains a membrane that lines the shell and forms an air
cell at the large end, and two white strands called chalazae that hold the yolk
centered.
• The yolk is high in both fat and protein, and it contains iron and several
vitamins. Its color ranges from light to dark yellow, depending on the diet
of the chicken.
• The white is primarily albumin protein, which is clear and soluble when
raw but white and firm when coagulated.The white also contains sulfur.
• The shell is not the perfect package, in spite of what you may have heard. It
is not only fragile but also porous,allowing odors and flavors to be absorbed
by the egg and allowing the egg to lose moisture even if unbroken.
The table below lists the water, protein, and fat content of whole eggs,
whites, and yolks.
Average Composition of
Fresh Liquid Eggs
Whole eggs (%) Whites (%) Yolks (%)
Water 73 86 49
Protein 13 12 17
Fat 12 — 32
Minerals and 2 2 2
other components
The parts of an egg. The diagram shows, in
simplified form, the location of the parts of
an unbroken egg, as described in the text.
GRADES AND QUALITY
Grades
In the United States, eggs are graded for quality by the USDA.There are three
grades:AA,A, and B.The best grade (AA) has a firm white and yolk that stand
up high when broken onto a flat surface and do not spread over a large area.
As eggs age, they become thinner and are graded lower.The figure on page 48
shows the differences among grades AA, A, and B.
In Canada, there are four egg grades:A, B, C, and Canada Nest Run.
As a baker, you will not be concerned so much with the firmness of yolks
and whites. Rather, you will want eggs that are clean and fresh-tasting, free of
bad odors and tastes caused by spoilage or absorption of foreign odors. One
bad-smelling egg can ruin an entire batch of cakes.
Maintaining Quality
Proper storage is essential for maintaining quality. Eggs keep for weeks if held
at 36°F (2°C) but lose quality quickly if held at room temperature. In fact, they
can lose a full grade in one day at warm bakeshop temperatures.There’s no
point in paying for Grade AA eggs if they are Grade B by the time you use them.
Store eggs away from other foods that might pass on undesirable flavors or odors.
Size
Eggs are also graded by size.The table below gives the minimum weight per
dozen (including shell) of each size category. Note that each size differs from
the next by 3 oz per dozen. European eggs are also graded by size, with size 1
being the largest (70 g each, or about 2.5 oz) and 7 being the smallest
(45 g each, or about 1.6 oz).This weight includes the shell.
Large eggs are the standard size used in baking and in food service.Shelled
large whole eggs, yolks, and whites have the following approximate weights.
Average Large Eggs, Approximate Weights Without Shell
One whole egg = 1.67 oz 47 g
One egg white = 1 oz 28 g
One yolk = 0.67 oz 19 g
91⁄2 whole eggs = 1 lb 21 whole eggs = 1 kg
16 whites = 1 lb 36 whites = 1 kg
24 yolks = 1 lb 53 yolks = 1 kg
48 Chapter 3 • Ingredients
Egg Size Classifications
Minimum Weight per Dozen
Size U.S. Metric
Jumbo 30 oz 850 g
Extra large 27 oz 765 g
Large 24 oz 680 g
Medium 21 oz 595 g
Small 18 oz 510 g
Peewee 15 oz 425 g
Egg grades (a) Grade AA, (b) Grade A, and
(c) Grade B eggs, as seen from the top and
side. Note how the white and yolk lose
thickness and spread more in the lower
grades. Courtesy of USDA
a. b. c.
To measure small quantities or odd quantities of whole egg, such as 0.5 oz
or 15 g, beat the whole egg or eggs and then measure by weight.
MARKET FORMS
1. Fresh eggs or shell eggs
2. Frozen eggs Frozen eggs are usually made from high-quality fresh eggs
and are excellent for use in baking.They are pasteurized and are usually
purchased in 30-lb tins.
To thaw, place them unopened in refrigerator and hold for two days, or
place in a defrosting tank containing running water at 50° to 60°F (10° to
15°C) for about 6 hours. Do not defrost at room temperature or in warm
water. Stir well before using.
Whole eggs
Whole eggs with extra yolks
Whites
Yolks
Frozen yolks may contain a small amount of sugar (usually about 10%;
check the label) to keep the components from separating while frozen.
When sugared yolks are used in products such as cakes, you should allow
for their sugar content by reducing the sugar in the formula by the same
amount. For example, if you are using 20 oz yolks with 10% sugar, subtract
2 oz (20 oz × .10) from the sugar in the formula.
3. Dried eggs
Whole
Yolks
Whites
Dried eggs are sometimes used in the bakeshop, though less often than
frozen eggs. The whites are frequently used for making meringue
powders. Dried egg products are also used by commercial manufacturers
of cake mixes.
Dried eggs are incorporated in baked goods in two ways:by reconstituting
them with water to make liquid eggs, or by mixing them with the dry
ingredients and adding the extra water to the liquid portion of the formula.
It is important to follow manufacturers’ instructions for the ratio of egg
to water because egg products vary. After mixing, let the eggs stand to
allow time for the water to be absorbed.This takes 1 hour for whole eggs
and yolks, and sometimes 3 hours or more for whites. Mix again before
using.
The following are typical ratios for reconstituting eggs:
Product Ratio of egg to water by weight
Whole eggs 1:2.5
Yolks 1:1 to 1:1.5
Whites 1: 5.5 to 1: 6
Unlike most dried products,dried eggs do not keep well.Keep refrigerated
or frozen, tightly sealed.
SANITATION
In recent years,cases of salmonella food poisoning have been caused by raw or
undercooked eggs. As a result,cooks have been made more aware of sanitation
concerns with respect to eggs. Pasteurized egg products are used in more
operations. For a more detailed discussion of eggs and food safety.
FUNCTIONS
Eggs perform the following functions in baking:
1. Structure Like gluten protein, egg protein coagulates to give structure
to baked products. This is especially important in high-ratio cakes, in
which the high content of sugar and fat weakens the gluten.
If used in large quantities, eggs make baked products more tough or
chewy unless balanced by fat and sugar, which are tenderizers.
2. Emulsifying of fats and liquids Egg yolks contain natural emulsifiers
that help produce smooth batters.This action contributes to volume and
to texture.
3. Leavening Beaten eggs incorporate air in tiny cells or bubbles. In a
batter, this trapped air expands when heated and aids in leavening.
4. Shortening action The fat in egg yolks acts as a shortening.This is an
important function in products that are low in other fats.
5. Moisture Eggs are mostly water.This moisture
must be calculated as part of the total liquid in a formula. If yolks are
substituted for whole eggs, for example, or if dried eggs are used, adjust
the liquid in the formula to allow for the different moisture content of
these products.
6. Flavor
7. Nutritional value
8. Color Yolks impart a yellow color to doughs and batters. Also, eggs
brown easily and contribute to crust color.
Eggs should be well understood by the baker because they are used in
large quantities in the bakeshop and are more expensive than many of
the other high-volume ingredients, such as flour and sugar. For
example, half or more of the ingredient cost of the average cake
batter is for the eggs.
COMPOSITION
A whole egg consists primarily of a yolk, a white, and a shell. In
addition, it contains a membrane that lines the shell and forms an air
cell at the large end, and two white strands called chalazae that hold the yolk
centered.
• The yolk is high in both fat and protein, and it contains iron and several
vitamins. Its color ranges from light to dark yellow, depending on the diet
of the chicken.
• The white is primarily albumin protein, which is clear and soluble when
raw but white and firm when coagulated.The white also contains sulfur.
• The shell is not the perfect package, in spite of what you may have heard. It
is not only fragile but also porous,allowing odors and flavors to be absorbed
by the egg and allowing the egg to lose moisture even if unbroken.
The table below lists the water, protein, and fat content of whole eggs,
whites, and yolks.
Average Composition of
Fresh Liquid Eggs
Whole eggs (%) Whites (%) Yolks (%)
Water 73 86 49
Protein 13 12 17
Fat 12 — 32
Minerals and 2 2 2
other components
The parts of an egg. The diagram shows, in
simplified form, the location of the parts of
an unbroken egg, as described in the text.
GRADES AND QUALITY
Grades
In the United States, eggs are graded for quality by the USDA.There are three
grades:AA,A, and B.The best grade (AA) has a firm white and yolk that stand
up high when broken onto a flat surface and do not spread over a large area.
As eggs age, they become thinner and are graded lower.The figure on page 48
shows the differences among grades AA, A, and B.
In Canada, there are four egg grades:A, B, C, and Canada Nest Run.
As a baker, you will not be concerned so much with the firmness of yolks
and whites. Rather, you will want eggs that are clean and fresh-tasting, free of
bad odors and tastes caused by spoilage or absorption of foreign odors. One
bad-smelling egg can ruin an entire batch of cakes.
Maintaining Quality
Proper storage is essential for maintaining quality. Eggs keep for weeks if held
at 36°F (2°C) but lose quality quickly if held at room temperature. In fact, they
can lose a full grade in one day at warm bakeshop temperatures.There’s no
point in paying for Grade AA eggs if they are Grade B by the time you use them.
Store eggs away from other foods that might pass on undesirable flavors or odors.
Size
Eggs are also graded by size.The table below gives the minimum weight per
dozen (including shell) of each size category. Note that each size differs from
the next by 3 oz per dozen. European eggs are also graded by size, with size 1
being the largest (70 g each, or about 2.5 oz) and 7 being the smallest
(45 g each, or about 1.6 oz).This weight includes the shell.
Large eggs are the standard size used in baking and in food service.Shelled
large whole eggs, yolks, and whites have the following approximate weights.
Average Large Eggs, Approximate Weights Without Shell
One whole egg = 1.67 oz 47 g
One egg white = 1 oz 28 g
One yolk = 0.67 oz 19 g
91⁄2 whole eggs = 1 lb 21 whole eggs = 1 kg
16 whites = 1 lb 36 whites = 1 kg
24 yolks = 1 lb 53 yolks = 1 kg
48 Chapter 3 • Ingredients
Egg Size Classifications
Minimum Weight per Dozen
Size U.S. Metric
Jumbo 30 oz 850 g
Extra large 27 oz 765 g
Large 24 oz 680 g
Medium 21 oz 595 g
Small 18 oz 510 g
Peewee 15 oz 425 g
Egg grades (a) Grade AA, (b) Grade A, and
(c) Grade B eggs, as seen from the top and
side. Note how the white and yolk lose
thickness and spread more in the lower
grades. Courtesy of USDA
a. b. c.
To measure small quantities or odd quantities of whole egg, such as 0.5 oz
or 15 g, beat the whole egg or eggs and then measure by weight.
MARKET FORMS
1. Fresh eggs or shell eggs
2. Frozen eggs Frozen eggs are usually made from high-quality fresh eggs
and are excellent for use in baking.They are pasteurized and are usually
purchased in 30-lb tins.
To thaw, place them unopened in refrigerator and hold for two days, or
place in a defrosting tank containing running water at 50° to 60°F (10° to
15°C) for about 6 hours. Do not defrost at room temperature or in warm
water. Stir well before using.
Whole eggs
Whole eggs with extra yolks
Whites
Yolks
Frozen yolks may contain a small amount of sugar (usually about 10%;
check the label) to keep the components from separating while frozen.
When sugared yolks are used in products such as cakes, you should allow
for their sugar content by reducing the sugar in the formula by the same
amount. For example, if you are using 20 oz yolks with 10% sugar, subtract
2 oz (20 oz × .10) from the sugar in the formula.
3. Dried eggs
Whole
Yolks
Whites
Dried eggs are sometimes used in the bakeshop, though less often than
frozen eggs. The whites are frequently used for making meringue
powders. Dried egg products are also used by commercial manufacturers
of cake mixes.
Dried eggs are incorporated in baked goods in two ways:by reconstituting
them with water to make liquid eggs, or by mixing them with the dry
ingredients and adding the extra water to the liquid portion of the formula.
It is important to follow manufacturers’ instructions for the ratio of egg
to water because egg products vary. After mixing, let the eggs stand to
allow time for the water to be absorbed.This takes 1 hour for whole eggs
and yolks, and sometimes 3 hours or more for whites. Mix again before
using.
The following are typical ratios for reconstituting eggs:
Product Ratio of egg to water by weight
Whole eggs 1:2.5
Yolks 1:1 to 1:1.5
Whites 1: 5.5 to 1: 6
Unlike most dried products,dried eggs do not keep well.Keep refrigerated
or frozen, tightly sealed.
SANITATION
In recent years,cases of salmonella food poisoning have been caused by raw or
undercooked eggs. As a result,cooks have been made more aware of sanitation
concerns with respect to eggs. Pasteurized egg products are used in more
operations. For a more detailed discussion of eggs and food safety.
FUNCTIONS
Eggs perform the following functions in baking:
1. Structure Like gluten protein, egg protein coagulates to give structure
to baked products. This is especially important in high-ratio cakes, in
which the high content of sugar and fat weakens the gluten.
If used in large quantities, eggs make baked products more tough or
chewy unless balanced by fat and sugar, which are tenderizers.
2. Emulsifying of fats and liquids Egg yolks contain natural emulsifiers
that help produce smooth batters.This action contributes to volume and
to texture.
3. Leavening Beaten eggs incorporate air in tiny cells or bubbles. In a
batter, this trapped air expands when heated and aids in leavening.
4. Shortening action The fat in egg yolks acts as a shortening.This is an
important function in products that are low in other fats.
5. Moisture Eggs are mostly water.This moisture
must be calculated as part of the total liquid in a formula. If yolks are
substituted for whole eggs, for example, or if dried eggs are used, adjust
the liquid in the formula to allow for the different moisture content of
these products.
6. Flavor
7. Nutritional value
8. Color Yolks impart a yellow color to doughs and batters. Also, eggs
brown easily and contribute to crust color.
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
Next to water, milk is the most important liquid in the bakeshop. As we
discussed in chapter 1,water is essential for the development of gluten. Fresh
milk, being 88 to 91% water, fulfills this function. In addition, milk contributes
to the texture, flavor, crust color, keeping quality, and nutritional value of
baked products.
In this section,we discuss milk products in two parts: first, an explanation
and definition of the various products available; and second, guidelines for
using milk products in baking.
The table below lists the water, fat, and milk solids content of the most
important milk products. Milk solids include protein, lactose (milk sugar), and
minerals.
CATEGORIES AND DEFINITIONS
Fresh Liquid Milk
Whole milk is fresh milk as it comes from the cow, with nothing removed and
nothing added (except when fortified with vitamin D). It contains 3.5% fat
(known as milkfat or butterfat), 8.5% nonfat milk solids, and 88% water.
Composition of Milk Products
Water (%) Fat (%) Milk Solids (%)
Fresh, whole 88 3.5 8.5
Fresh, skim 91 trace 9
Evaporated, whole 72 8 20
Evaporated, skim 72 trace 28
Condensed, wholea 31 8 20
Dried, whole 1.5 27.5 71
Dried, skim 2.5 trace 97.5
aCondensed milk also contains 41% sugar (sucrose).
Fresh whole milk is available in several forms:
Pasteurized milk has been heated to kill disease-producing bacteria and
then cooled. Most milk and cream products on the market have been
pasteurized.
Raw milk is milk that has not been pasteurized. It is not often used and,
in fact, is generally not allowed to be sold.
Certified milk is produced by disease-free herds under strict sanitary
conditions. It may be raw or pasteurized.
Homogenized milk has been processed so the cream doesn’t separate.
This is done by forcing the milk through very tiny holes, which breaks up
the fat into particles so small they stay distributed in the milk.
The above terms apply not only to whole milk but also to other forms.
Skim or nonfat milk has had most or all fat removed. Its fat content is 0.5% or
less. Other forms available to food service and to retail outlets include low-fat
milk (0.5 to 3% milkfat), fortified nonfat or low-fat milk, and flavored milk.
However, these products are generally not used in bakeshops.
Cream
Various types of fresh cream, differing primarily in fat content, are available:
Whipping cream has a fat content of 30 to 40%.Within this category,you
may find light whipping cream (30 to 35%) and heavy whipping cream
(36 to 40%). Light whipping cream has about the same fat content as the
product called single cream in England. Double cream, on the other
hand, is much richer than most heavy whipping cream.With a fat content
of about 48%,double cream is easy to whip and, after whipping, less likely
to weep or to separate into liquid and foam.
Whipping cream labeled ultrapasteurized keeps longer than regular
pasteurized cream, but it does not whip as well. Ultrapasteurized cream
often contains vegetable gums or other stabilizers to partially compensate
for this decreased whipping ability.
Light cream, also called table cream or coffee cream, contains 16 to 22%
fat, usually about 18%.
Half-and-half has a fat content of 10 to 12%,too low for it to be called cream.
Crème fraîche is a slightly aged, cultured heavy cream, thick but
pourable, with a pleasant,somewhat tangy flavor. It is widely used in sauce
making in the savory kitchen. In the bakeshop, it is not often mixed into
doughs or batters, but it is used for whipping and for incorporating into
dessert sauces and Bavarian creams. If crème fraîche is not available, you
can make a close approximation by warming 1 qt (1 L) heavy cream to
about 100°F (38°C), adding 11⁄2 oz (50 mL) buttermilk, and letting the
mixture stand in a warm place until slightly thickened, about 6 to 24 hours.
Fermented Milk Products
Buttermilk is fresh,liquid milk,usually skim milk,that has been cultured or
soured by bacteria. It is usually called cultured buttermilk to distinguish it
from the original buttermilk, which was the liquid left after butter making.
Buttermilk is generally used in recipes calling for sour milk.
Sour cream has been cultured or fermented by adding lactic acid bacteria.
This makes it thick and slightly tangy in flavor. It has about 18% fat.
Yogurt is milk (whole or low-fat) cultured by special bacteria. It has a
custardlike consistency. Most yogurt has additional milk solids added, and
some of it is flavored and sweetened.
Evaporated and Condensed Milk
Evaporated milk is milk, either whole or skim, with about 60% of the
water removed. It is then sterilized and canned. Evaporated milk has a
somewhat cooked flavor.
Condensed milk is whole milk or low-fat milk that has had about 60% of
the water removed and is heavily sweetened with sugar. It is available
canned and in bulk.
Dried Milk
Dried whole milk is whole milk that has been dried to powder. It has
poor keeping qualities because it contains the original butterfat, which
can become rancid.Therefore, it should be purchased in small quantities
and always stored in a cool place.
Nonfat dry milk, also known as nonfat milk solids, is skim milk that has
been dried to a powder. It is available in regular form and in instant form,
which dissolves in water more easily.
Cheese
Two types of cheese are used in the bakeshop, primarily in the production of
cheese fillings and cheesecakes.
Baker’s cheese is a soft, unaged cheese with a very low fat content. It is
dry and pliable and can be kneaded somewhat like a dough. Generally
available in 30-lb and 50-lb packs, it can be frozen for longer storage.
Cream cheese is also a soft,unaged cheese,but it has a higher fat content,
about 35%. It is used mainly in rich cheesecakes and in a few specialty
products.
Two other cheeses are occasionally used for specialty products.
Mascarpone is a type of Italian cream cheese with a tangier flavor than
American-style cream cheese. It is used to make the filling for tiramisu.
Another Italian cheese,ricotta, was originally made from the whey left
over from making cheese out of cow’s milk or sheep’s milk, although now it is
more often made from whole milk than from whey. It has many uses in the
kitchen and bakeshop.A smooth,relatively dry ricotta called ricotta impastato
is used to make a filling for cannoli. Regular ricotta has too much
moisture for this purpose.
GUIDELINES FOR USING MILK
PRODUCTS IN BAKING
Fresh Liquid Milk
Whole milk contains fat,which must be calculated as part of the shortening in
a dough. For this reason, whole and skim milk are not interchangeable in a
formula unless adjustments are made for the fat. Refer to the table on page 43
for the fat content of milk products.
Acid ingredients, such as lemon juice, cream of tartar, and baking powder,
normally should not be added directly to milk, as they will curdle it.
Buttermilk
When buttermilk is produced, the lactose in the milk is converted to lactic
acid.When buttermilk is used in place of regular milk in baked goods such as
cakes or muffins, this acidity must, in most cases, be neutralized by adding
baking soda to the formula.Then, because the soda and acid together release
carbon dioxide, this extra leavening power must be compensated for by
reducing the baking powder, as follows:
For each quart For each liter
(2 lb) buttermilk: (1 kg) buttermilk:
1. Add 0.5 oz baking soda. 1. Add 15 g baking soda.
2. Subtract 1 oz baking powder. 2. Subtract 30 g baking powder.
Cream
Cream is not often used as a liquid in doughs and batters, except in a few
specialty products. In these instances, because of its fat content, it functions as
a shortening as well as a liquid.
Cream is more important in the production of fillings, toppings, dessert
sauces, and cold desserts such as mousses and Bavarian creams. For detailed
instructions on whipping heavy cream into a foam.
Dried Milk
1. Dried milk is often used because of its convenience and low cost. In many
formulas, it is not necessary to reconstitute it.The milk powder is included
with the dry ingredients and water is used as the liquid.This practice is
common in bread making and in no way reduces quality.
2. Proportions for reconstituting dry milk can be calculated from the table
on page 43. For easy use, the equivalents in the table above can be used.
3. Heat-treated dry milk, not low-heat-processed dry milk, should be
purchased by the bakeshop. In the heat-treated product, certain enzymes
that can break down gluten have been destroyed.
STORAGE OF MILK PRODUCTS
Fresh milk and cream, buttermilk and other fermented milk products, and
cheese must be kept refrigerated at all times.
Evaporated milk in unopened cans may be kept in a cool storage area.
After opening, store it in the refrigerator.
Condensed milk in large containers keeps for a week or more after
opening if kept covered and in a cool place.The sugar acts as a preservative.
Stir before using because the sugar tends to settle to the bottom and sides.
Dried milk should be kept in a cool, dark place. It does not need
refrigeration,although you should store it well away from ovens and other heat
sources.Keep the container tightly closed to prevent the milk from absorbing
moisture from the air.
Substituting Dry Milk for Liquid Milk
To substitute for Use
1 lb skim milk 14.5 oz water + 1.5 oz nonfat dry milk
1 lb whole milk 14 oz water + 2 oz dried whole milk
1 lb whole milk 14 oz water + 1.5 oz nonfat dried milk
+ 0.5 oz shortening or 0.7 oz butter
1 kg skim milk 910 g water + 90 g nonfat dry milk
1 kg whole milk 880 g water + 120 g dried whole milk
1 kg whole milk 880 g water + 90 g nonfat dry milk
+ 30 g shortening or 40 g butter
discussed in chapter 1,water is essential for the development of gluten. Fresh
milk, being 88 to 91% water, fulfills this function. In addition, milk contributes
to the texture, flavor, crust color, keeping quality, and nutritional value of
baked products.
In this section,we discuss milk products in two parts: first, an explanation
and definition of the various products available; and second, guidelines for
using milk products in baking.
The table below lists the water, fat, and milk solids content of the most
important milk products. Milk solids include protein, lactose (milk sugar), and
minerals.
CATEGORIES AND DEFINITIONS
Fresh Liquid Milk
Whole milk is fresh milk as it comes from the cow, with nothing removed and
nothing added (except when fortified with vitamin D). It contains 3.5% fat
(known as milkfat or butterfat), 8.5% nonfat milk solids, and 88% water.
Composition of Milk Products
Water (%) Fat (%) Milk Solids (%)
Fresh, whole 88 3.5 8.5
Fresh, skim 91 trace 9
Evaporated, whole 72 8 20
Evaporated, skim 72 trace 28
Condensed, wholea 31 8 20
Dried, whole 1.5 27.5 71
Dried, skim 2.5 trace 97.5
aCondensed milk also contains 41% sugar (sucrose).
Fresh whole milk is available in several forms:
Pasteurized milk has been heated to kill disease-producing bacteria and
then cooled. Most milk and cream products on the market have been
pasteurized.
Raw milk is milk that has not been pasteurized. It is not often used and,
in fact, is generally not allowed to be sold.
Certified milk is produced by disease-free herds under strict sanitary
conditions. It may be raw or pasteurized.
Homogenized milk has been processed so the cream doesn’t separate.
This is done by forcing the milk through very tiny holes, which breaks up
the fat into particles so small they stay distributed in the milk.
The above terms apply not only to whole milk but also to other forms.
Skim or nonfat milk has had most or all fat removed. Its fat content is 0.5% or
less. Other forms available to food service and to retail outlets include low-fat
milk (0.5 to 3% milkfat), fortified nonfat or low-fat milk, and flavored milk.
However, these products are generally not used in bakeshops.
Cream
Various types of fresh cream, differing primarily in fat content, are available:
Whipping cream has a fat content of 30 to 40%.Within this category,you
may find light whipping cream (30 to 35%) and heavy whipping cream
(36 to 40%). Light whipping cream has about the same fat content as the
product called single cream in England. Double cream, on the other
hand, is much richer than most heavy whipping cream.With a fat content
of about 48%,double cream is easy to whip and, after whipping, less likely
to weep or to separate into liquid and foam.
Whipping cream labeled ultrapasteurized keeps longer than regular
pasteurized cream, but it does not whip as well. Ultrapasteurized cream
often contains vegetable gums or other stabilizers to partially compensate
for this decreased whipping ability.
Light cream, also called table cream or coffee cream, contains 16 to 22%
fat, usually about 18%.
Half-and-half has a fat content of 10 to 12%,too low for it to be called cream.
Crème fraîche is a slightly aged, cultured heavy cream, thick but
pourable, with a pleasant,somewhat tangy flavor. It is widely used in sauce
making in the savory kitchen. In the bakeshop, it is not often mixed into
doughs or batters, but it is used for whipping and for incorporating into
dessert sauces and Bavarian creams. If crème fraîche is not available, you
can make a close approximation by warming 1 qt (1 L) heavy cream to
about 100°F (38°C), adding 11⁄2 oz (50 mL) buttermilk, and letting the
mixture stand in a warm place until slightly thickened, about 6 to 24 hours.
Fermented Milk Products
Buttermilk is fresh,liquid milk,usually skim milk,that has been cultured or
soured by bacteria. It is usually called cultured buttermilk to distinguish it
from the original buttermilk, which was the liquid left after butter making.
Buttermilk is generally used in recipes calling for sour milk.
Sour cream has been cultured or fermented by adding lactic acid bacteria.
This makes it thick and slightly tangy in flavor. It has about 18% fat.
Yogurt is milk (whole or low-fat) cultured by special bacteria. It has a
custardlike consistency. Most yogurt has additional milk solids added, and
some of it is flavored and sweetened.
Evaporated and Condensed Milk
Evaporated milk is milk, either whole or skim, with about 60% of the
water removed. It is then sterilized and canned. Evaporated milk has a
somewhat cooked flavor.
Condensed milk is whole milk or low-fat milk that has had about 60% of
the water removed and is heavily sweetened with sugar. It is available
canned and in bulk.
Dried Milk
Dried whole milk is whole milk that has been dried to powder. It has
poor keeping qualities because it contains the original butterfat, which
can become rancid.Therefore, it should be purchased in small quantities
and always stored in a cool place.
Nonfat dry milk, also known as nonfat milk solids, is skim milk that has
been dried to a powder. It is available in regular form and in instant form,
which dissolves in water more easily.
Cheese
Two types of cheese are used in the bakeshop, primarily in the production of
cheese fillings and cheesecakes.
Baker’s cheese is a soft, unaged cheese with a very low fat content. It is
dry and pliable and can be kneaded somewhat like a dough. Generally
available in 30-lb and 50-lb packs, it can be frozen for longer storage.
Cream cheese is also a soft,unaged cheese,but it has a higher fat content,
about 35%. It is used mainly in rich cheesecakes and in a few specialty
products.
Two other cheeses are occasionally used for specialty products.
Mascarpone is a type of Italian cream cheese with a tangier flavor than
American-style cream cheese. It is used to make the filling for tiramisu.
Another Italian cheese,ricotta, was originally made from the whey left
over from making cheese out of cow’s milk or sheep’s milk, although now it is
more often made from whole milk than from whey. It has many uses in the
kitchen and bakeshop.A smooth,relatively dry ricotta called ricotta impastato
is used to make a filling for cannoli. Regular ricotta has too much
moisture for this purpose.
GUIDELINES FOR USING MILK
PRODUCTS IN BAKING
Fresh Liquid Milk
Whole milk contains fat,which must be calculated as part of the shortening in
a dough. For this reason, whole and skim milk are not interchangeable in a
formula unless adjustments are made for the fat. Refer to the table on page 43
for the fat content of milk products.
Acid ingredients, such as lemon juice, cream of tartar, and baking powder,
normally should not be added directly to milk, as they will curdle it.
Buttermilk
When buttermilk is produced, the lactose in the milk is converted to lactic
acid.When buttermilk is used in place of regular milk in baked goods such as
cakes or muffins, this acidity must, in most cases, be neutralized by adding
baking soda to the formula.Then, because the soda and acid together release
carbon dioxide, this extra leavening power must be compensated for by
reducing the baking powder, as follows:
For each quart For each liter
(2 lb) buttermilk: (1 kg) buttermilk:
1. Add 0.5 oz baking soda. 1. Add 15 g baking soda.
2. Subtract 1 oz baking powder. 2. Subtract 30 g baking powder.
Cream
Cream is not often used as a liquid in doughs and batters, except in a few
specialty products. In these instances, because of its fat content, it functions as
a shortening as well as a liquid.
Cream is more important in the production of fillings, toppings, dessert
sauces, and cold desserts such as mousses and Bavarian creams. For detailed
instructions on whipping heavy cream into a foam.
Dried Milk
1. Dried milk is often used because of its convenience and low cost. In many
formulas, it is not necessary to reconstitute it.The milk powder is included
with the dry ingredients and water is used as the liquid.This practice is
common in bread making and in no way reduces quality.
2. Proportions for reconstituting dry milk can be calculated from the table
on page 43. For easy use, the equivalents in the table above can be used.
3. Heat-treated dry milk, not low-heat-processed dry milk, should be
purchased by the bakeshop. In the heat-treated product, certain enzymes
that can break down gluten have been destroyed.
STORAGE OF MILK PRODUCTS
Fresh milk and cream, buttermilk and other fermented milk products, and
cheese must be kept refrigerated at all times.
Evaporated milk in unopened cans may be kept in a cool storage area.
After opening, store it in the refrigerator.
Condensed milk in large containers keeps for a week or more after
opening if kept covered and in a cool place.The sugar acts as a preservative.
Stir before using because the sugar tends to settle to the bottom and sides.
Dried milk should be kept in a cool, dark place. It does not need
refrigeration,although you should store it well away from ovens and other heat
sources.Keep the container tightly closed to prevent the milk from absorbing
moisture from the air.
Substituting Dry Milk for Liquid Milk
To substitute for Use
1 lb skim milk 14.5 oz water + 1.5 oz nonfat dry milk
1 lb whole milk 14 oz water + 2 oz dried whole milk
1 lb whole milk 14 oz water + 1.5 oz nonfat dried milk
+ 0.5 oz shortening or 0.7 oz butter
1 kg skim milk 910 g water + 90 g nonfat dry milk
1 kg whole milk 880 g water + 120 g dried whole milk
1 kg whole milk 880 g water + 90 g nonfat dry milk
+ 30 g shortening or 40 g butter
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